Page 133 - Understanding Psychology

grades as men, women perceive themselves as less competent than males. The self-confidence of females rises, though, when they perform tasks in which they receive clear and direct feedback on their performance, especially that which they complete alone.
Many studies have also found that aggression is one of the areas with the most significant differences between genders. (Aggression refers to hostile or destructive behavior.) Females engage in more ver- bal aggressive acts, while males participate in more physical aggression (Turner & Gervai, 1995). Some researchers propose that women also think differently about aggression (Kendrick, 1987). The women stud- ied said they feel guilty or have more anxiety about the dangers involved in aggressive behavior.
Differences in aggressive behavior can be observed by watching children at play. Whereas males are more likely to use mock fighting and rough and tumble play, females tend to use indirect forms of aggression. This may include such things as talking about or rejecting, ignoring, or avoiding the target of aggression (Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukianen, 1992).
What causes this physical aggression in boys? Starting at an early age, society encourages boys to be competitive and to settle conflicts through aggression. Evidence from studies of identical twins also indicates that men have lower levels of the neurotransmitter sero- tonin than women (Berman, Tracy, & Coccaro, 1997). Lower levels of serotonin have been associated with higher levels of aggression.
Another gender difference can often be detected in male and female communication styles. Although many popular stereotypes portray women as more talkative, studies have demonstrated that men actually talk more than women and interrupt women more while they are talking. Women talk more, though, when they have power in a relationship. Females are more likely to use hedges in speech, such as “kind of” or “you know.” Women also use more disclaimers, such as “I may be wrong” or “I’m not sure.” Finally, women use more tag ques- tions at the end of sentences, such as “Okay?” (Lakoff, 1973; McMillan et al., 1977).
As far as nonverbal communication goes, women are more likely to show submission and warmth, whereas men display more domi- nance and status. More women than men, though, are sensitive to nonverbal cues (Briton & Hall, 1995).
Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities
You may have heard someone claim that females are better than males at verbal skills, while males excel at spatial and mathe- matical skills. Janet Hyde and Marcia Linn (1988) examined 165 studies on verbal ability, finding that no measurable differences in verbal skills exist between males and females. If differences exist, they are relatively small. When researchers examined mathemati- cal ability, they discovered no significant differences between male and female abilities.
Figure Gender in
4.13
the Media
The media often target specific genders using stereotypes in their advertisements. This may help children form their ideals of what it means to be a male or female. How might this doll advertisement reinforce gender stereotypes?
Chapter 4 / Adolescence 119