Page 609 - Understanding Psychology

Figure 20.7 Using Heuristics
We use heuristics, or shortcuts, to eval- uate many messages. This saves us time and energy. Which heuristic is this advertiser using?
1. If the message contains many numbers and large words, it must be based on facts.
2. If the message focuses on values I have, it is probably right.
3. Famous or successful people conveying the message are probably right.
4. If most people support this product or believe this, it is probably true.
source undercut the message. When the memory of the source fades, the message then stands on its own merit, and more people may accept it (Kelman & Hovland, 1953).
The problem is that this requires forgetting one thing and retaining another, with no obvious reason why that should occur. Researchers (Pratkanis et al., 1988) conducted experiments to verify their differential decay hypothesis. They argued that if the message is heard first, followed by a discounting cue (such as a low-credibility source), the two balance each other out—no effect is observed. Over time, however, the negative aspects of the cue dissipate more rapidly than the impact of the highly elaborated message. It is easi- er to remember your own position than the details of an argument. If the cue decays rapidly and the argu- ment more slowly, what remains is the effect on an atti- tude. It may also be that it simply takes time for people to change their minds. As the message sinks in, atti- tudes change more.
The Inoculation Effect
What can you do to resist persuasion? Research has shown that people can be educated to resist atti- tude change. This technique can be compared to an inoculation (McGuire, 1970). Inoculation against per- suasion works in much the same way as inoculation against certain diseases. When a person is vaccinated, he is given a weakened or dead form of the disease- causing agent, which stimulates his body to manufac- ture defenses. If an inoculated person is attacked by a more potent form of the agent, he is immune to infec- tion. Similarly, a person who has resisted a mild attack on his beliefs is ready to defend them against an onslaught that might otherwise have been over- whelming.
The inoculation effect can be explained in two
ways: it motivates individuals to defend their beliefs
more strongly, and it gives them some practice in
defending those beliefs. The most vulnerable attitudes you have, there- fore, are the ones that you have never had to defend. For example, you might find yourself hard put to defend your faith in democracy or in the healthfulness of vegetables if you have never had these beliefs questioned.
Brainwashing
The most extreme means of changing attitudes involves a combination of psychological gamesmanship and physical torture, aptly called brain- washing. The most extensive studies of brainwashing have been done on
inoculation effect: develop- ing resistance to persuasion by exposing a person to argu- ments that challenge his or her beliefs so that he or she can practice defending them
brainwashing: extreme form of attitude change; uses peer pressure, physical suffering, threats, rewards, guilt, and inten- sive indoctrination
Chapter 20 / Attitudes and Social Influence 595