Page 170 - Western Civilization A Brief History, Volume I To 1715 9th - Jackson J. Spielvogel

For Livy, human character was the determining factor in history.
Livy’s history celebrated Rome’s greatness. He built scene upon scene that not only revealed the character of the chief figures but also demonstrated the virtues that had made Rome great. Of course, he had serious weaknesses as a historian. He was not always concerned about the factual accuracy of his stories. But he was an excellent storyteller, and his work remained the standard history of Rome for centuries.
The Silver Age of Latin Literature
In the history of Latin literature, the century and a half after Augustus is often labeled the “silver age” to indi- cate that the literary efforts of the period, though good, were not equal to the high standards of the Augustan “golden age.” The popularity of rhetorical training encouraged the use of clever literary expres- sions at the expense of original content. A good exam- ple of this trend can be found in the works of Seneca.
Educated in Rome, Seneca (ca. 4 B.C.E.–65 C.E.) became strongly attached to the philosophy of Stoicism. In letters written to a young friend, he expressed the basic tenets of Stoicism: living according to nature, accepting events dispassionately as part of the divine plan, and having universal love for all humanity. Thus, “the first thing philosophy promises us is the feeling of fellowship, of belonging to mankind and being members of a community. . . . Philosophy calls for simple living, not for doing penance, and the simple way of life need not be a crude one.”9 Viewed in retrospect, Seneca dis- plays some glaring inconsistencies. While preaching the virtues of simplicity, he amassed a fortune and was ruthless at times in protecting it. His letters show humanity, benevolence, and fortitude, but his senti- ments are often undermined by an attempt to be clever with words.
The greatest historian of the silver age was Tacitus (ca. 56–120). His main works included the Annals and Histories, which presented a narrative account of Roman history from the reign of Tiberius through the assassina- tion of the emperor Domitian (doh-MISH-un) in 96. Tac- itus believed that history had a moral purpose: “It seems to me a historian’s foremost duty to ensure that merit is recorded, and to confront evil deeds and words with the fear of posterity’s denunciations.”10 As a member of the senatorial class, Tacitus was disgusted with the abuses of power perpetrated by the emper- ors and was determined that the “evil deeds” of
132 Chapter 6 The Roman Empire
wicked men would not be forgotten. Many historians believe he went too far in projecting the evils of his own day into his account of the past. His work Germania is especially important as a source of infor- mation about the early Germans. But it too is colored by Tacitus’s attempt to depict the Germans as noble savages in contrast to the decadent Romans.
The Upper-Class Roman Family
By the second century C.E., significant changes were occurring in the Roman family (see Images of Every- day Life on p. 133). The foundations of the authority of the paterfamilias over his family, which had al- ready begun to weaken in the late republic, were fur- ther undermined. The paterfamilias no longer had absolute authority over his children; he could no lon- ger sell his children into slavery or have them put to death. Moreover, the husband’s absolute authority over his wife also disappeared, a process that had begun in the late republic. In the early empire, the idea of male guardianship continued to weaken sig- nificantly, and by the late second century, it had become a formality.
Upper-class Roman women in the early empire had considerable freedom and independence. They had acquired the right to own, inherit, and dispose of prop- erty. They could also attend races, the theater, and events in the amphitheater, although in the latter two places they were forced to sit in sections apart from the men. Moreover, ladies of rank were still accompanied by maids and companions when they went out. Some women operated businesses, such as shipping firms. Women could still not participate in politics, but the early empire saw a number of important women who influenced politics through their husbands, including Livia, the wife of Augustus; Agrippina, the mother of Nero; and Plotina, the wife of Trajan.
Imperial Rome
At the center of the colossal Roman Empire was the an- cient city of Rome (see Map 6.3). Truly a capital city, Rome had the largest population of any city in the empire. It is estimated that it was home to close to 1 million people by the time of Augustus. For anyone with political ambitions, Rome was the place to be. Extremely cosmopolitan, it was a magnet to people far and near. Nationalities from all over the empire resided there, with entire neighborhoods inhabited by specific groups, such as Greeks and Syrians.
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