Page 303 - Western Civilization A Brief History, Volume I To 1715 9th - Jackson J. Spielvogel

CHRONOLOGY The Decline of the Church
Pope Boniface VIII 1294–1303 Unam Sanctam 1302
Papacy at Avignon 1305–1378 Pope Gregory XI’s return to Rome 1377
Start of the Great Schism 1378
Pope Urban VI 1378–1389
Failure of Council of Pisa to end schism 1409 Council of Constance 1414–1418 End of schism; election of Martin V 1417
to elect a new pope, the citizens of Rome, fearful that the French majority would choose another Frenchman who would return the papacy to Avignon, threatened that the cardinals would not leave Rome alive unless they elected a Roman or at least an Italian as pope. Indeed, the guards of the conclave warned the cardinals that they “ran the risk of being torn in pieces” if they did not choose an Italian. The terrified cardinals duly elected the Italian archbishop of Bari, who was subse- quently crowned as Pope Urban VI (1378–1389) on Easter Sunday.
Following his election, Urban VI made clear his plans to reform the papal curia and even to swamp the college of cardinals with enough new Italian cardinals to eliminate the French majority. After many of the cardinals (the French ones) withdrew from Rome in late summer and were finally free of the Roman mob, they issued a manifesto, saying that they had been coerced by the mob and that Urban’s election was therefore null and void. The dissenting cardinals there- upon chose one of their number, a Frenchman, who took the title of Clement VII and promptly returned to Avignon. Since Urban remained in Rome, there were now two popes, initiating what has been called the Great Schism of the church.
Europe’s loyalties soon became divided: France, Spain, Scotland, and southern Italy supported Clement, while England, Germany, Scandinavia, and most of Italy supported Urban. These divisions generally fol- lowed political lines. Because the French supported the Avignonese pope, so did their allies; their enemies, par- ticularly England and its allies, supported the Roman pope.
The Great Schism badly damaged the faith of Chris- tian believers. The pope was widely believed to be the leader of Christendom and, as Boniface VIII had pointed out, held the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Since each line of popes denounced the other as the Antichrist, such a spectacle could not help but under- mine the institution that had become the very founda- tion of the church.
The Conciliar Movement
As dissatisfaction with the papacy grew, so did the calls for a revolutionary approach to solving the church’s institutional problems. Final authority in spiritual mat- ters must reside not with the popes, reformers claimed, but with a general church council representing all mem- bers. The Great Schism led large numbers of serious churchmen to take up this theory of conciliarism in
the belief that only a general council of the church could end the schism and bring reform to the church in its “head and members.” In desperation, a group of cardi- nals from both lines of popes finally heeded these theo- retical formulations and convened a general council. This Council of Pisa, which met in 1409, deposed the two rival popes and elected a new one. The council’s action proved disastrous when the two deposed popes refused to step down. There were now three popes, and the church seemed more hopelessly divided than ever.
Leadership in convening a new council now passed to the Holy Roman emperor, Sigismund. As a result of his efforts, a new ecumenical church council met at Constance from 1414 to 1418. It had three major objectives: to end the schism, to eradicate heresy, and to reform the church in “head and members.” The ending of the schism proved to be the Council of Con- stance’s easiest task. After the three competing popes either resigned or were deposed, a new conclave elected a Roman cardinal, a member of a prominent Roman family, as Pope Martin V (1417–1431). The council was much less successful in dealing with the problems of heresy and reform.
Culture and Society in an Age of Adversity
Q FOCUS QUESTIONS: What were the major developments in art and literature in the fourteenth century? How did the adversities of the fourteenth century affect urban life?
In the midst of disaster, the fourteenth century proved creative in its own way. The rapid growth of vernacular literature and new inventions made an impact on
Culture and Society in an Age of Adversity 265
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