Page 433 - Western Civilization A Brief History, Volume I To 1715 9th - Jackson J. Spielvogel

scientific experiments. Marie-Anne Lavoisier is a re- minder that women too played a role in the Scientific Revolution.
Women in the Origins of Modern Science
Q FOCUS QUESTION: What role did women play in the Scientific Revolution?
During the Middle Ages, except for members of reli- gious orders, women who sought a life of learning were severely hampered by the traditional attitude that a woman’s proper role was as a daughter, wife, and mother. But in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries, new opportunities for elite women emerged as enthusiasm for the new secular learning called humanism led Europe’s privileged and learned men to encourage women to read and study classical and Christian texts. The ideal of a humanist education for some of the daughters of Europe’s elite persisted into the seventeenth century, but only for some privileged women.
Margaret Cavendish
Much as they were drawn to humanism, women were also attracted to the Scientific Revolution. Unlike girls educated formally in humanist schools, women inter- ested in science had to obtain a largely informal educa- tion. European nobles had the leisure and resources that gave them easy access to the world of learning. This door was also open to noblewomen, who could participate in the informal scientific networks of their fathers and brothers.
One of the most prominent female scientists of the seventeenth century, Margaret Cavendish (KAV-un- dish) (1623–1673), was not a popularizer of science for women but was able to participate in the crucial scien- tific debates of her time because of her aristocratic background. Despite her achievements, however, she was excluded from membership in the Royal Society (see “The Spread of Scientific Knowledge” later in this chapter), although she was once allowed to attend a meeting. She wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations upon Experimental Phi- losophy and Grounds of Natural Philosophy. In these works, she did not hesitate to attack what she consid- ered the defects of the rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge and was especially
critical of the growing belief that humans through sci- ence were the masters of nature: “We have no power at all over natural causes and effects . . . for man is but a small part. . . . His powers are but particular actions of Nature, and he cannot have a supreme and absolute power.”4
As an aristocrat, Cavendish, the duchess of New- castle, was a good example of the women in France and England who worked in science (see the box on p. 396). Women interested in science who lived in Germany came from a different background. There the tradition of female participation in craft produc- tion enabled some women to become involved in observational science, especially astronomy. Between 1650 and 1710, one in every seven German astrono- mers was a woman.
Maria Winkelmann
The most famous of the female astronomers in Ger- many, Maria Winkelmann (VINK-ul-mahn) (1670–1720), was educated by her father and uncle and received advanced training from a local self-taught astronomer. When she married Gottfried Kirch, Germany’s foremost astronomer, she became his assistant at the astronomi- cal observatory operated in Berlin by the Academy of Science. Here she made some original contributions, including the sighting of a hitherto undiscovered comet, as her husband related:
Early in the morning (about 2:00 A.M.) the sky was clear and starry. Some nights before, I had observed a variable star, and my wife (as I slept) wanted to find and see it for herself. In so doing, she found a comet in the sky. At which time she woke me, and I found that it was indeed a comet. . . . I was surprised that I had not seen it the night before.5
When her husband died in 1710, she applied for a position as assistant astronomer. Although highly
CHRONOLOGY Important Works of the Scientific Revolution
Copernicus, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly 1543 Spheres
Vesalius, On the Fabric of the Human Body 1543 Galileo, The Starry Messenger 1610 Harvey, On the Motion of the Heart and Blood 1628 Cavendish, Grounds of Natural Philosophy 1668 Newton, Principia 1687
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