Page 52 - Western Civilization A Brief History, Volume I To 1715 9th - Jackson J. Spielvogel

texts date to around 3000 B.C.E. and were written by the Sumerians, who used a cuneiform (kyoo-NEE-uh- form) (“wedge-shaped”) system of writing. Using a reed stylus, they made wedge-shaped impressions on clay tablets, which were then baked or dried in the sun. Once dried, these tablets were virtually indestructible, and the several hundred thousand that have been dis- covered have served as a valuable source of informa- tion for modern scholars. Sumerian writing evolved from drawings of physical objects to simplified and stylized signs, leading eventually to a phonetic system that made possible the written expression of abstract ideas.
Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily for record keeping. They also produced monumental texts, documents that were intended to last forever, such as inscriptions etched in stone on statues and royal build- ings. Numerous texts were prepared for teaching pur- poses. Schools for scribes, which were in operation by 2500 B.C.E., were necessary because much time was needed to master the cuneiform system of writing. The primary goal of scribal education was to produce pro- fessionally trained scribes for careers in the temples and palaces, the military, and government. Pupils were male and primarily from wealthy families.
Writing was important because it enabled a society to keep records and maintain knowledge of previous practices and events. Writing also made it possible for people to communicate ideas in new ways, which is especially evident in Mesopotamian literary works. The most famous piece of Mesopotamian literature was The Epic of Gilgamesh, an elaborate poem that records the exploits of a legendary king of Uruk. Gilgamesh—wise, strong, and perfect in body, part man, part god— befriends a hairy beast named Enkidu. Together they set off in pursuit of heroic deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh experiences the pain of mortality and embarks on a search for the secret of immortality, in which he finds Utnapishtim, a man who had been granted “everlasting life” by the gods and survived the Great Flood sent by the gods to destroy humankind (see the box on p. 15). But his efforts fail, and Gilga- mesh remains mortal. The desire for immortality, one of humankind’s great searches, ends in complete frus- tration. Everlasting life, this Mesopotamian epic makes clear, is only for the gods.
People in Mesopotamia also made outstanding achievements in mathematics and astronomy. In math, the Sumerians devised a number system based on 60, using combinations of 6 and 10 for practical solutions. Geometry was used to measure fields and erect
buildings. In astronomy, the Sumerians made use of units of 60 and charted the heavenly constellations. Their calendar was based on twelve lunar months and was brought into harmony with the solar year by add- ing an extra month from time to time.
Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile”
Q FOCUS QUESTION: What are the basic features of the three major periods of Egyptian history? What elements of continuity are there in the three periods? What are their major differences?
Although contemporaneous with Mesopotamia, civili- zation in Egypt evolved along somewhat different lines. Of central importance to the development of Egyptian civilization was the Nile River. That the Egyptian peo- ple recognized its significance is apparent in this Hymn to the Nile: “The bringer of food, rich in provisions, cre- ator of all good, lord of majesty, sweet of fragrance. . . . He who . . . fills the magazines, makes the granaries wide, and gives things to the poor. He who makes ev- ery beloved tree to grow. . . .”6 Egypt, like Mesopotamia, was a river valley civilization.
The Impact of Geography
The Nile, the longest river in the world, begins in the heart of Africa and courses northward for thousands of miles. Thanks to the Nile, an area several miles wide on both banks of the river was capable of producing abun- dant harvests. The “miracle” of the Nile was its annual flooding. The river rose in the summer from rains in Central Africa and the Ethiopian highlands, crested in Egypt in September and October, and left a deposit of silt that enriched the soil. The Egyptians called this fer- tile land the “Black Land” because it was dark from the silt and the lush crops that grew on it. Beyond these narrow strips of fertile fields lay the deserts (the “Red Land”).
Unlike the floods of Mesopotamia’s rivers, the flood- ing of the Nile was gradual and usually predictable, and the river itself was seen as life-enhancing, not life- threatening. Although a system of organized irrigation was still necessary, the small villages along the Nile could make the effort without the massive state inter- vention that was required in Mesopotamia. Egyptian civilization consequently tended to remain more rural, with many small population centers congregated along
14 Chapter 1 The Ancient Near East: The First Civilizations
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