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to the specific needs and contexts of ESL learners. Educators should be supported
through professional development opportunities that equip them with practical
skills for using authentic texts and targeted vocabulary instruction methods
effectively. Future research should continue to explore innovative approaches,
particularly those that leverage technology and promote learner-centered practices,
to enhance vocabulary acquisition outcomes in diverse ESL settings.

LITERATURE REVIEW ON L2 VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION
A thorough examination of studies surrounding L2 vocabulary instruction
reveals a long-standing distinction between incidental and intentional learning.
Research has predominantly explored how incidental exposure to vocabulary can
occur through various language-learning activities. Incidental learning, which
happens as a byproduct of engaging with language for communicative purposes,
has been shown to contribute to vocabulary acquisition, especially through extensive
reading or listening activities. Nevertheless, the unpredictable nature of incidental
1
learning often limits its effectiveness as a sole instructional strategy because learners
may not notice or sufficiently process unknown vocabulary items. As such, incidental
2
exposure generally needs to be supplemented with intentional instruction to
reinforce vocabulary uptake. Intentional learning, on the other hand, involves explicit
attention to vocabulary items through direct teaching methods. Nation (2001)
highlights the benefits of focused vocabulary instruction, emphasizing the role of
pre-teaching vocabulary and incorporating deliberate practice opportunities such as
3
word mapping, repetition, and productive use in speaking and writing. Studies by
Laufer and Hulstijn (2001) further support that intentional learning tasks, when
carefully designed, can enhance retention, especially for low-frequency or academic
vocabulary that learners might not easily acquire through incidental means. Webb
4
(2008) advocates for designing tasks that encourage learners to interact with new
vocabulary in meaningful ways, such as through guesswork from context, dictionary
use, and collaborative discussions. Such approaches not only improve vocabulary
5
retention but also promote deeper processing, linking semantics with pragmatic use.
Moreover, combining incidental and intentional learning approaches appears to
yield optimal outcomes. For instance, Nation (2013) proposes a balanced framework
where intentional learning prepares learners to better benefit from incidental
exposure, thus creating a reciprocal effect that enhances long-term vocabulary
acquisition. This synergy is particularly valuable in ESL settings, where curriculum
6
time for explicit vocabulary teaching may be limited. Technology-mediated tools
further facilitate both incidental and intentional learning by enabling adaptive input
and interactive vocabulary exercises. Digital platforms can provide instant feedback
7

1 Krashen, S. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis.
The Modern Language Journal, 73(4), 440–464.
2 Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 129–158.
3 Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge University Press.
4 Laufer, B., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language: The construct of task-
induced involvement. Applied Linguistics, 22 (1), 1–26.
5 Webb, S. (2008). Receptive and productive vocabulary learning: The effects of reading and writing on word
knowledge. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30 (3), 387–419
6 Nation, I. S. P. (2013). Learning vocabulary in lexical sets: Danger or advantage? TESOL Quarterly, 47(4), 768–775. 118
7 Godwin-Jones, R. (2018). Using mobile technology to develop language skills and cultural understanding.
Language Learning & Technology, 22 (3), 1-17.

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