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geared to diversification and ‘non-traditional’ or high value export goods. Some African examples
include horticultural products and cut flowers in Kenya and Zimbabwe, tobacco in Mozambique and
vanilla cultivation in Uganda. In ‘non-traditional’ horticultural exports, low-paid seasonal female
employment has had a crucial role. Increase in production of cash crop, fruits and vegetables for
export etc. in developing countries have not only affected employment but also food security of the
women.

Q6. Discuss the theoretical frameworks in detail.
Ans. Several theoretical frameworks are available to analyze these issues.
Some major theories are
• Modernization Theory
• Developmentalist Theory (Women in Development)
• Exploitation Theory
• Dependency Theory
• World System Theory
The Modernization Theory and Developmentalists Theory explain the work status of women from
‘supply side factors. As per these theories, the type of work and status women get in the labor markets
is determined by the nature of the supply of women’s labor. Contrary to these, the Exploitation
Theory, Dependency and World System Theories explain the women’s status in the labor market with
the ‘demand side factors. They are based on Marxist analysis of the society. The nature of demand for
women’s labor in the capitalist’s economic development limit their participation and status in the
economy.
Modernization Theory: Modernization theory is largely based on the view that to develop means to
become ‘modern’ by following the path of development followed by the developed societies like
Europe or U.S.A. Modernization is associated with urbanization, industrialization, growth of
education etc. According to the modernization theory, modern societies are more productive, children
are better educated, and the needy receive more welfare.
Undeveloped societies are ‘traditional societies’ dominated by institutions such as families, tribes and
clans, within which roles are ascribed (i.e. people are born into them) rather than achieved by
individual through personal efforts. Production largely confines to agricultural sector.
According to the economic theory of modernization a possible solution for the promotion of Third
World modernization lies in the provision of aid to these countries in the form of capital, technology,
and expertise to increase productive investment. It was argued that through increase in productive
investment the agrarian societies will evolved in to industrialised, modern societies and the benefits of
modernization like urban living, better living condition, higher wages, education, adequate health
services etc. would trickle down to all segments of society including women. Hence, the basic
modernization arguments suggest that modernization leads to women’s emancipation from traditional
subordinated roles by integrating them with new job opportunities in the industrial and service
sectors (Goode, 1963). A major assumption of modernization theory is that socio-economic
development leads to women’s equality, liberation, and material well-being.
One of the major institutional change took place with the capitalist development is the separation of
household and workplace. The household is no more productive unit but merely a unit for
reproduction and consumption as per the modernization thesis. The sex based economic division was
reformulated with division between household and work place. The husband becomes primarily bread
winner and sustain the family with wages earned outside the home and the role of wife is to manage
the externally earned income for the family. More over the tendency for ‘modern’ couples to set up
separate households from their extended family furthers the wife’s independence. Although the
household comes to be defined as women’s primary sphere, this development does not, according to
modernization theory, substantially limit women’s opportunities for employment outside the home. A
number of changes associated with socioeconomic development are assumed to expand women’s
range of options for labor force participation.
The reason why women are less represented in the higher levels of labor markets are to be found in
the supply side factors. Women are less educated. They do not give enough time or commitment to
work out side or learn new skills because they themselves view their household duties as their primary
responsibilities. As per the modernization thesis as the development takes place people become more
effluent and the breadwinner male would earn enough income to sustain the family. There is no
economic compulsion on women to work.
The real experiences of women in several countries were different. This was brought out by
developmentalists through empirical database from various developing countries.
Develop mentalists (Women in Development): The debate about the impact of development on
women was initiated with the path breaking work by Esther Bosrup’s ‘women’s role in Economic