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c) Genetics: The study of inherited traits in individuals and the actions of the
genes responsible for them in populations is vital to understanding human
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variability. Although blood groups initially constituted the bulk of data, many
other molecular traits, particularly DNA sequences, have been analyzed. At the
turn of the 21st century, geographic populations were described in terms of gene
frequencies, which were in turn used to model the history of population
movements. This information, combined with linguistic and archaeological
evidence, helps to resolve puzzles on the peopling of continents and
archipelagoes. Traits that were used for racial classifications do not group neatly
in patterns that would allow boundaries to be drawn among geographic
populations (see race), and none endows any population with more humanity
than others. The concept of biological races (subspecies) of Homo sapiens is
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invalid; biologically meaningful racial types are nonexistent, and all humans are
mongrels.
d) Human Ecology: Problems of population composition, size, and stability are
important in many ways. An immediate aspect is the varying rate of change that
may occur in populations of different sizes. Theoretically, small populations are
more susceptible to chance fluctuations than large populations. Both the natural
environment and the economy of a particular society affect population size.
Studies of human physiological adaptations to high-altitude, arid, frigid, and
other environments, of nutrition, and of epidemiology have revealed just how
versatile and vulnerable humans are.
e) Bioarcheology:Bioarcheologists test hypotheses about relative mortality,
population movements, wars, social status, political organization, and other
demographic, epidemiological, and social phenomena in past societies by
combining detailed knowledge of cultural features and artifacts, such as those
related to mortuary practice, with an understanding of paleo nutrition,
paleopathology, and the discrete traits that can be detected from skeletons.
f) Growth and Development: Methods to assess rates of growth, skeletal age
compared with chronological age, and the genetic, endocrinologic, and
nutritional factors that affect growth in humans and other primates are foci of
research by physical anthropologists in medical and dental schools, clinics,
primate centres, and universities. The relation between growth and
socioeconomic status and other cultural factors receives considerable attention.
The sequential emergence of teeth provides an index of development. Growth
studies have tracked children through morphological and biochemical changes to
discern why they grow. Physical anthropologists are also involved in studies of
aging, particularly with regard to skeletal changes such as osteoporosis.
g) Anthropometry: Bodily measurements are a mainstay of anthropological
research. Digital calipers and other sophisticated instruments that load data
directly into computers expedite data collection and analysis. The judicious

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