Page 3 - Merchants and Mandarins China Trade Era
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Dissertation Abs·tract
1'fiERCHANTS AND MANDARINS:
THE GENESIS OF AM:E:RICAN RELATIONS WITH CHINA
Mary Veronica Kuebel
Uni versi·ty of Virginia
Augus·t 197 4
American contact with China began in the 1780 s, when tra
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ders .from the newly-independent Republic appeared at Canton to
purchase China. teas and silks. These firs·t Americans in China
discovered that Westerners resided in the Chinese Empire only
on Chinese terms. Americans, like the European traders who
preceded them ·to China, could enter the Empire at one port (Can
ton) for the sole purpose of trade. The Chinese considered all
foreigners to be inferior "barbarians." To govern the Wester
ners at Canton, the Uhinese had e s tablished a set of regula
tions and restrictions. Knovm as 'the "Canton system," these
laws kept Westerners under the stric·t control of ·the Imperial
government.
By the 1780's this system had operated efficiently for
over a cen-tury. Since their government had little power or in
fluence to protect them in foreign ports, American traders gen
erally observed na:tive la,vs. Eager for commercial profi·ts,
Americans in Chil'.l tolerated Chinese assumptions of superiority
to succeed under the "Canton system." The first Americans at
Canton were individualistic, adventuresome and competitive.
Su.ch characteristics had pushed them across oceans to India and
the East Indies and to the Pacific Northwest and the Hawaiian
Islands on their way to the Celestial Empire. American sea-
