Page 140 - The Encyclopedia of Taoism v1_A-L

100 THE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF TAOISM VOL. I

of sins or good deeds accumulated during one's own former lives, added to
those committed by oneself in this life and to those of one's ancestors; (2) the
vision of long-term supernatural torture chambers known as "earth prisons"
(diyu :lilifRX) or hells, as well as punishment through rebirth as an animal or
hungry ghost; (3) trust in the efficacy of various forms of ritual, such as rites
of repentance (*chanhui) and the making of offerings, to alleviate the karmic
burden; and (4) an increasing faith in savior figures, such as bodhisattvas, gods,
and Perfected (*zhenren), who would use their limitless power and compassion
to raise people from the worldly mire.
*Lingbao Taoists of the fifth century embraced the Buddhist vision with
particular enthusiasm. In accordance with the general Chinese tendency, they
emphasized lay, bodhisattva-oriented practice, and most of the rules they
established governed the devotional activities of the common people, such as
the performance of repentance rituals, the giving of charity, and the sponsor-
ship of festivals. These rules were often rather vague in nature and provided
general moral guidelines more than specific behavioral instructions.
Still, the new vision was not incorporated into the older tradition entirely
without conflict. As Erik Zurcher (1980) points out, there were three areas of
particular difficulty. First, the notion of ancestral inheritance was blurred in
light of the belief in individual rebirth, raising the question of who really was
to blame. Second, the traditional clear division of the afterlife into Heaven and
the underworld was now complicated by the possibility of another alternative,
rebirth. Third, the general sense of communal unity and collective guilt was
disrupted by the strong individualism of Buddhism.
These three stages of the early development of Taoist ethical thought cor-
respond loosely to those outlined for the Western tradition by Paul Ricoeur
(1967), who sees an unfolding of ethical thinking from defilement (cosmic) to
sin (social) to guilt (individual).

Later developments. From the fifth century onward, Taoist ethics continued to
be nurtured under Buddhist influence (especially in the doctrines of karma and
rebirth; see *Yebao yinyuan jing), and to be cultivated through monastic codes
(see *Fengdao kejie) and meditative techniques. In the Song, the Taoist ethical
vision broadened, and there was a greater popular concern with deeds and
their retribution. The highly popular * Taishang ganying pian was compiled in
the II50S, and many people began keeping ledgers of merit and demerit (gong-
guo ge Jj) J.I.\1 m; Brokaw 1991) to take stock of their moral deeds and cosmic
standing. This suggested a rather mercantile approach to the problem of
ethics, which nevertheless did not significantly deviate from the basic ethical
thought that had first developed in the middle ages.
LiviaKOHN