Page 153 - The Encyclopedia of Taoism v1_A-L

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and severe asceticism. Also, Buddhist doctrine emphasizes that among all
forms of rebirth, the human is the most valuable, because it alone allows the
conscious experience of attachment and suffering which will lead to nirvatla
or full liberation.
Taoist asceticism, then, manifests in a variety of practices, such as hermit-
ism, dietary techniques, and methods of sexual control. Hermitism means
separation from family and society in favor of a life in the wilderness. Taoist
immortals are well known for this rejection of worldly life, and famous for
their unkempt appearance and easy communion with nature. These features
are documented from the earliest sources (e.g., the *Liexianzhuan) to the pres-
ent day, when a hermit Bill Porter encountered in the Zhongnan mountains
(Zhongnan shan f.{f m LlJ , Shaanxi), upon being asked how he had fared under
Mao Zedong, widened his eyes and asked: "Mao who?" (Porter I993).
Dietary techniques range from total fasts, during which the intake of food
is replaced by the ingestion of *qi (pneuma; see *foqi) and the swallowing of
saliva, to exchanging ordinary food for concocted drugs or natural foodstuffs.
Again, we have documents from the earliest times (Guifu fl x: or the Persim-
mon Man in the Liexian zhuan; see Kaltenrnark I953, n8-20) to today, as in the
case of the hermit lady Porter met who lived only on walnuts. Sexual control
(see *Jangzhong shu) comes in two forms, either as celibacy or as coitus inter-
ruptus. Both involve the retention of bodily fluids or vital qi, here in the form
of *jing (semen) which instead of being ejaculated is redirected "to nourish
the brain" (see *huanjing bunao).
While certain adverse reactions may occur in the early stages of the prac-
tice and a degree of hardship is to be expected, the practice of asceticism in
Taoism is meant to refine and purify the body, which is described as becoming
lighter, softer, and younger.
LiviaKOHN

m Eskildsen I998; Porter I993; Vervoorn I990

Divination, omens, and prophecy

Means of diagnosing the present and predicting the future such as divination,
reading omens, and prophecy have a long history in China, and play a role in
both popular religion and in Taoism. Prophecy, in particular, played a major
role in early Taoist messianic movements (see *MESSIANISM AND MILLENARI-
ANISM) and in later Taoist traditions such as *Shangqing.
Divination was among the traditions that influenced the formation of
Taoism in the Han dynasty. The earliest documented instance of such pre-