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of the above four conditions were met on the Korean peninsula. There is no
evidence, on the other hand, that any Taoist organization, such as the *Tianshi
dao or *Quanzhen, was ever established there. However, since it cannot be
denied that Taoism, in the process of its acceptance in Korea, combined with
folk cults and religious movements that possessed organizations, it may be
said that indirectly a religious association also existed.
Korean inner alchemy. Prominent among early Taoist (and early Buddhist)
rituals were those performed to protect the state on behalf of the court
and the royal family. When these state rituals declined with the rise of Neo-
Confucianism under the Yi dynasty (1392- 1910), the intelligentsia shifted its
interests to practices based on Nourishing Life (*yangsheng) and *neidan. Out
of these grew a Korean neidan school, the Haedong sonp'a w* {ill ~ (Lineage
of Immortality in Korea), around the fifteenth or sixteenth century. Chong
Ryom ~~ !il~ (1506-49) is well known as the author of the Pukch'ang pigyol ~t
fif;fMWc (Secret Instructions from the Northern Studio), a manual of neidan
techniques. His younger brother ChOng Sok ~~ participated in the compila-
tion of the Tong'iLi pogam * ~:e:i! (Precious Mirror of Eastern Medicine),
a comprehensive medical text strongly influenced by neidan ideas. According
to the Haedong ch on do rok W * -A!J J!l ~ (Account of the Transmission of the
Way in Korea), the main representatives of the Haedong sonp'a include Kim
Kagi ~ PT ~c (fl. ca. 830), Kim Sisup ~ fF.f ~ (1435-93), and Nam Kungtu !¥IT
'§ -4 (1526- 1620). Another important legacy of Korean neidan is represented
by several commentaries to the *Zhouyi cantong qi, the first of which was the
Chuyok ch'amt'ong kye chuhae ,m] ~ ~ jqJ ~ntffl¥ (Explication of the Zhouyi
cantong qi; 1639) by Kwon Kukjung fiR: I=j:l (1585-1659).
In present-day South Korea, a group called Kukson to ~ {ill J!l (Way of
the National Immortals) follows a neidan-type practice centering mainly on
breathing techniques. Although members deny any influence from Taoism
and assert that their ideas and practices are native to Korea, this group may
be seen in some ways as a modern development of the Haedong sonp'a.
Korean research on Taoism. After Yi Kyegyong's '* :i- (I788-?) Oju yonmun
changson sango .limHij)(*~~ffij (Miscellaneous Essays from the Five
Islands), two major studies on Taoism in Korea are Yi Nunghwa's Choson
togyosa (A History of Korean Taoism; 1959) and Ch'a Chuhwan's Han'guk iLi
togyo sasang (Taoist Thought in Korea; 1984). The Korean Association for the
Study of Taoist Thought (Han' guk togyo sasangsa yon'guhoe ~ ~ J!l ~ ,~,
~1iJf ~it) was formed in 1986. It changed its name to Korean Association
of Taoist Culture (Han'guk togyo munhwa hakhoe ~~J!lt5c)(1t"'fn in
1997 and expanded its organization. Research activities are being developed
with Korean Taoism as the main area of study, and Chinese Taoism as a