Page 61 - The Encyclopedia of Taoism v1_A-L

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jing as a book for physical and moral cultivation (see *Xiang'er), and integrated
Confucian virtues into their religion. Their meditation chambers (*jingshi) rep-
licated the halls used by Confucian literati for reading the classics. In addition,
some of the gods of the Celestial Masters originated as popular deities.
During the Six Dynasties, the *Shangqing school harmoniously blended
various earlier trends: the legacy of Han cosmology, the Han literary patrimony,
some elements borrowed from the Celestial Masters, traces of *Wang Bi's use
of the terms *wu and you (Non-being and Being). Just as *Ge Hong had done
some decades earlier, Shangqing Taoism incorporated the image of the saint
(*shengren) found in the Chuci ~ iffF (Songs of Chu; trans. Hawkes 1985) and the
Zhuangzi, along with the Zhuangzi's notion of the Dao. The *Lingbao school in
turn drew much inspiration from the traditions of Ge Hong, Shangqing, and
the Celestial Masters, as well as from certain Confucian traditions. To these
it added a real Buddhist influence for the first time in Taoism, especially in its
notion of universal salvation (*pudu). The Lingbao cosmology and pantheon
were also adapted from Buddhism and earlier Taoism.
The Tang period witnessed close relations among Taoism, Buddhism and
Confucianism, and conscious efforts to harmonize the so-called Three Teach-
ings. The Taoist schools of Xiaodao *m (Way of Filiality) and *Jingming dao
(Pure and Bright Way) emphasized the Confucian virtues of loyalty and filiality.
Taoists, who had already considered the Confucian and Buddhist disciplines
as parallel and complementary to their own, began to expand their exchanges
with Buddhists. From at least the sixth century onward, some mountains, such
as Mount Tai (*Taishan, Shandong); hosted both Taoist and Buddhist com-
munities who lived in harmony with each other. Taoist and Buddhist voices
asserted the fundamental identity of their respective goals.
After external religious elements were incorporated from the fifth century
onward, cosmological elements coalesced during the Tang period. Taoist texts
also began to incorporate Madhyamaka dialectics into a coherent theoretical
view of Taoism (see *Chongxuan), and the notion of emptiness evolved in
accordance with its Buddhist meaning. A curious combination of Taoism and
Buddhism thus developed, which nevertheless remained remarkably true to
the Taoist philosophical and religious perspective. The Buddhist theory of the
Body of Manifestation (huashen it 51' , nirma1J.akaya) and the Body of Response
(yingshen ~51', sambhogakaya) was adopted to explain the multiplicity of teach-
ings, schools, and deities: all teachings are only forms of the formless Ultimate
Truth, or the Body of the Law lfashen #;; 51' , dharmakaya) that cannot be seen
or even thought of; all gods are avatars of the Dao or Yuanshi tianzun jfJ€1
:7C~ (Celestial Worthy of Original Commencement; see *sanqing), taking
forms adapted to the circumstances and the capacities of the faithful. Lists of
deities were created to synthesize and reorder the pantheon of the Shangqing
and Lingbao schools. In spite of these well-intentioned efforts to coordinate