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132 Clinical Manual of Small Animal Endosurgery

increased requirements for intensive care. Conversions may be elective,
due to poor exposure (as in case of adhesions, obesity or aberrant
anatomy) or operator inexperience, or may be decided when a large
resectable mass is found. Emergency conversions are usually consequent
to uncontrollable haemorrhage or rupture of a hollow viscus, or are
related to anaesthetic complications precluding continuation of carbon
dioxide insufflation (hypercarbia, hypoxia). A conversion rate of 23%
has been reported (McClaran and Buote, 2009) and it is therefore impor-
tant for the patient and the operating team to be ready for it, should the
necessity arise.

Further reading

Freeman, L.J. (ed.) (1999) Veterinary Endosurgery. Mosby, St Louis, MO.
Lhermette, P. and Sobel, D. (eds) (2008) BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline
Endoscopy and Endosurgery. British Small Animal Veterinary Association,
Gloucester.
Mayhew, P.D. (2009) Techniques for laparoscopic and laparoscopic-assisted
biopsy of abdominal organs. Compendium: Continuing Education for Veteri-
narians 31, 170–177.
McCarthy, T.C. (ed.) (2005) Veterinary Endoscopy for the Small Animal Practi-
tioner. Elsevier Saunders, St Louis, MO.
Melendez, L. (ed.) (2001) Endoscopy. Veterinary Clinics of North America, Small
Animal Practice 31(4).
Monnet, E. and Twedt, D.C. (2003) Laparoscopy. Veterinary Clinics of North
America, Small Animal Practice 33, 1147–1163.
Radlinski, M.G. (ed.) (2009) Endoscopy. Veterinary Clinics of North America,
Small Animal Practice 39(3).
Tams, T.R. and Rawlings, C.A. (eds) (2011) Small Animal Endoscopy, 3rd edn.
Mosby, St Louis, MO.
Twedt, D.C. (1999) Laparoscopy of the liver and pancreas. In Small animal
Endoscopy, Tams, T.R. (ed.), pp. 409–418. Mosby, St Louis, MO.

References

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changes in blood pressure and carotid blood flow. American Journal of Physi-
ology 205, 360–364.
Bailey, J.E. and Pablo, L.S. (1999) Anesthetic and physiologic considerations for
veterinary Endosurgery. In Veterinary Endosurgery, Freeman, L.J. (ed.), pp.
24–43. Mosby, St Louis, MO.
Barnes, R.F., Greenfield, C.L., Schaeffer, D.J., Landolfi, J. and Andrews, J. (2006)
Comparison of biopsy samples obtained using standard endoscopic instru-
ments and the harmonic scalpel during laparoscopic and laparoscopic-assisted
surgery in normal dogs. Veterinary Surgery 35, 243–251.
Duke, T., Steinacher, S.L. and Remedios, A.M. (1996) Cardiopulmonary effects
of using carbon dioxide for laparoscopic surgery in dogs. Veterinary Surgery
25, 77–82.