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Control of Lipid Oxidation in Muscle Food 361
VetBooks.ir antioxidants such as phenolic compounds (Wang & González de Mejía,

2005).
Antioxidant peptides can be obtained through digestion of both vegetable
and animal proteins by the action of exogenous or endogenous enzymes, by
microbial fermentation, during food processing, or during gastrointestinal
digestion (Samaranayaka & Li-Chan, 2011). Enzymatic hydrolysis has been
widely used in the production of antioxidant peptides from food proteins.
Some commercial enzymes or enzymatic preparations from microbial (such
as Alcalase from Bacillus licheniformis, Flavourzyme from Aspergillus
®
®
oryzae, and Protamex from Bacillus spp.), vegetable (papain from Carica
®
papaya fruits), or animal (pepsin from stomach glands, and trypsin from
pancreas) sources have been used in the production of antioxidant peptides
(Pihlanto, 2006; Sarmadi & Ismail, 2010; Gallegos-Tintoré et al., 2011). In
foods, mainly fermented foods, the antioxidant peptides can also be produced
by the action of microorganisms or indigenous proteases (Samaranayaka &
Li-Chan, 2011).
In recent years, information on the obtaining of antioxidant peptides and
hydrolysates from vegetables (Gallegos Tintoré et al., 2013), marine foods
(Kim & Wijesekara, 2010; Di Bernardini et al., 2011), milk (Pihlanto, 2006),
eggs (Dávalos et al., 2004), and meat (muscles and by-products) (Di Bernar-
dini et al., 2011) was reviewed or directly reported, and peptidic sequences of
the most active peptides were elucidated. Regarding the vegetables, conven-
tional (proteins from soya, rice, corn, and chickpea) and non-conventional
(proteins from amaranth, buckwheat, colza, and Mexican pinon) sources
were assayed in the obtaining of antioxidant peptides. Marine species used
as sources of peptides were also diverse (jumbo squid, oyster, blue mussel,
hoki, tuna, cod, Pacific hake, capelin, scad, mackerel, Alaska pollock, conger
eel, yellowfin sole, yellow stripe trevally, silver carp, grass carp, herring,
and microalgae). Among dairy proteins, casein is the main source, although
obtaining of peptides from β-lactoglobulin was also reported. Peptides and
hydrolysates with antioxidant activity are obtained from proteins of all these
sources generally via hydrolysis with the commercial enzymes or enzymatic
preparations indicated in the previous paragraph.
Such peptides, and also less specific protein hydrolysates, can be used
as functional ingredients in foods in order to avoid or reduce undesirable
oxidation processes during storage (Samaranayaka & Li-Chan, 2011). To
date, however, few products are available in markets incorporating this
preservation system. Several reasons (problems of preparation of peptides
and/or hydrolysates at industrial scale; lack of complete and rigorous assays
confirming the activity, effectiveness, and safety; low reproducibility of the