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consultation or opposition, often through coercion or violence. Infrastructural power refers to the state’s ability to penetrate society, organise social relations, and enforce compliance through administrative and bureaucratic means. In the context of modern repression, infrastructural power has increasingly become more important as states utilise technologies like AI, big data, and surveillance to exercise control without the need for overt force (Feldstein 2021a; Gohdes 2020). In Mann’s framework, technologies of repression can be seen as an extension of infrastructural power. The state’s use of surveillance and AI-powered tools enables it to monitor, predict, and control social behaviour at a granular level, thereby minimising the need for direct intervention. This aligns with Mann’s idea that modern states maintain power through physical coercion and their ability to shape and regulate society’s infrastructure (Mann 1986). The rise of digital technologies has enhanced this capacity, allowing states to control vast populations with minimal physical presence (Kam & Clarke, 2021).
Moreover, Mann’s theory of the state helps explain the global spread of these technologies. As states seek to maintain hegemony and stability, they adopt repressive technologies to enhance their infrastructural power. This has been particularly evident in countries like China, where the integration of mass surveillance and social control systems has allowed the state to maintain unprecedented levels of control over its population (Kam & Clarke, 2021). Similarly, in authoritarian regimes across the Middle East, states have employed digital repression to suppress opposition and ensure regime survival (Uniacke, 2020; Feldstein, 2021a). While Mann’s theory primarily focuses on the state’s internal dynamics, it can also be applied to international relations. Exporting surveillance technologies from countries like China to other authoritarian regimes reflects the global spread of infrastructural power. This global dissemination of repressive technologies suggests that state power is no longer confined to national borders but extends into the digital realm, where it can be exercised across societies and regions (Gravett, 2022). In this way, Mann’s theory provides a valuable framework for understanding the internal and external dynamics of state repression in the digital age.
Mann’s framework, therefore, remains relevant in contemporary discussions of state violence and repression, particularly as the mechanisms of control have shifted from overt physical violence to more subtle, infrastructural forms of domination. Digital repression technologies enhance the state’s infrastructural power, allowing it to maintain control with greater efficiency and less reliance on overt coercion. This shift marks a significant evolution of state power, aligning with Mann’s insights into the duality of despotic and infrastructural control.
Literature review
Surveillance
Surveillance is one of the most pervasive technologies of state repression, providing governments with the ability to monitor and control populations in real-time. Surveillance technologies like facial recognition, biometric tracking, and mass data collection systems have become central to modern governance. These technologies allow states to gather information on individuals’ movements, behaviours, and communications, creating extensive databases that can be used to predict, prevent, or suppress dissent. The use of mass surveillance is particularly evident in authoritarian states like China, where sophisticated surveillance networks are integrated with AI to monitor the population. The “social credit system” is one such example, where citizens are continuously monitored, and their behaviour is evaluated according to government standards. This system reinforces state power by aligning personal incentives with government interests, discouraging dissent, and promoting compliance (Kam & Clarke, 2021). Surveillance is not limited to authoritarian regimes, as many democratic countries also utilise surveillance for national security purposes, albeit under more legal scrutiny (Feldstein, 2021b). Governments also employ surveillance to monitor online activities, gathering intelligence on political opposition, activist groups, and dissidents. In countries like Saudi Arabia and the UAE, social media is heavily monitored, and dissenting voices are suppressed through digital surveillance. These efforts are designed to maintain the political status quo and prevent the organisation of resistance (Uniacke, 2020). Surveillance technologies enhance state power by extending the government’s ability to see and control social behaviour, reinforcing its authority while limiting the capacity for opposition movements to mobilise.
Artificial intelligence-based technologies
Artificial intelligence (AI) plays a significant role in modern state repression, enabling governments to enhance their surveillance, predictive capabilities, and policing efforts. AI systems process vast amounts of data collected through surveillance, identifying behaviour patterns and potential threats to the state. These technologies allow governments to automate their repressive apparatus, making it more efficient and precise. In China, AI is combined with surveillance systems to track individuals, monitor social behaviours, and predict potential unrest (Kam & Clarke, 2021). AI-powered facial recognition and intelligent policing tools allow the state to prevent dissent before it can materialise, providing unprecedented control over the population. The use of AI in repression extends beyond surveillance, as it is also employed to analyse social media content, track dissident activity, and identify individuals who may threaten the regime (Gohdes, 2020). AI’s role in
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