Page 276 - Nutrition Counseling and Education Skills: A Guide for Professionals

people, not to people. If problems are apparent, then solutions may be found jointly by the professional and
the individual.24

Formative and Summative Evaluations

Formative and summative evaluations are two types of evaluations used to improve any of three processes—
program planning, teaching, or learning. Formative evaluation refers to that made early or during the course
of education, with the feedback of results modifying the rest of the educational endeavor. Summative
evaluation refers to an endpoint assessment of quality at the conclusion of learning.

Formative Evaluation

Formative evaluation is a systematic appraisal that occurs before or during the implementation of a learning
activity for the purpose of modifying or improving teaching, learning, program design, or educational
materials. It is often qualitative in nature, with data collection by observation, interviewing, and surveys. It can
help to diagnose problems in student learning and in teaching effectiveness. It pinpoints parts mastered and
parts not mastered and allows for revision of plans, methods, techniques, or materials.

Formative evaluation may be performed at frequent intervals. If the learner appears bored, unsure, anxious,
quizzical, or lost, or if you are unsure of the person’s abilities, for example, it is appropriate to stop teaching
and start the evaluation process. Ask the person to repeat what he or she has learned. In diabetic education, if
formative evaluation shows that the person does not understand the concept of carbohydrate counting, he or
she will not be able to master more complex behaviors such as menu planning. Having located the problem
that carbohydrate counting is not understood (comprehended by the client), the educator can change
approaches to try to overcome the problem. Perhaps, an alternative explanation that is clearer or simpler or a
concrete illustration is indicated. During group learning, a collaborative member may be able to provide an
explanation that an individual understands better than the explanation of the educator.25

Before nutrition messages and educational materials are designed and implemented, formative evaluation or
market research activities, such as focus group interviews and structured discussions with members of the
target audience, are designed and implemented. This type of qualitative evaluation helps the educator to learn
about individuals’ thoughts, ideas, and opinions and tells whether recipients are likely to ignore, reject, or
misunderstand the message or accept it and act on it.

Formative research is essential for tailoring intervention strategies. The moderator of a focus group uses
open-ended interviewing strategies with groups of 8 to 15 people. The focus group approach has been used to
assess consumer preferences, to plan and evaluate nutrition education interventions, and to pretest print
materials. It can answer questions about readability, content, and applicability.

Failure to learn may not always be related to instructional methods or materials per se, but may derive from
problems that are physical, emotional, cultural, or environmental in nature. By performing an evaluation after
smaller units of instruction, the educator can determine whether the pacing of instruction is appropriate for
the patient, client, or employee. Frequent feedback is necessary to facilitate learning. It is especially important
when a great deal of material has to be learned.

Mastery of smaller units can be a powerful positive reinforcement for the learner, and verbal praise may
increase motivation to continue learning. When mistakes are made, they should be corrected quickly by giving

276