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teachings. These early standards laid much of the groundwork for the moral and ethical traditions of
Western civilization. For example:

• Family: Monogamous relationships, a reverence for parents, and the nuclear family as
a stabilizing force in society.

• Altruism: The importance of honesty and truthfulness is stressed. The concept of
revenge is called unethical. The Golden Rule is formulated.

• Economic Ethics: The Talmud denounces gains obtained by betting or gambling as
well as breaching promises within commerce.

These early ethical concepts found their way into the Christian tradition, eventually forming the some of
the ethical groundwork for Western civilization.

Ancient Greco-Roman ethics also left a lasting legacy. In the interest of fairness, the Athenian Greeks first
practiced democracy and ostracized tyrants. Spartan Greeks employed a lawmaking body known as the
senate to prevent absolute power from falling into the hands of one man. Both
ancient Greece and Romecultivated the idea of national citizenship as a privilege.

Other innovations of ancient Greece and Rome persevere today. The open athletic competitions first held
in Olympia continued through the ages. Ancient Roman municipal planning serves as a prototype for
modern planned communities. Roman archivists such as Pliny the Elder compiled the first
encyclopedias, and mathematical and philosophical advances made by Pythagoras, Plato, Socrates,
and Aristotle are still alive and well in our classrooms.

Greece and Rome were not home to the only philosophical juggernauts of the ancient age. Jesus,
Buddha, Confucius, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle and other major philosophic and religious thinkers of
ancient times continue to influence modern politics, ethics, and social practices. Even some of the laws of
ancient times carried down to this modern era; the commandments presented by Moses and the Periclean
amendments to Athenian rules of citizenship both serve as models for laws of today.

Era of Empires

Most periods of history feature cultures attempting to stretch their influence over a wide swath of their
region, and in some cases, the planet. Shifting allegiances and powerful personalities of the ancient
age of empires have given history its fair share of famous and infamous characters.

Julius Caesar

The military and political leader who presided over the Roman world’s transformation from republic to
empire, Julius Caesar is one of the most famous historical figures. His days of rule and conquest ended in
44 BC when he was assassinated by a group of conspirators including Marcus Brutus.

Caesar Augustus

Also known as Octavian, he was Rome’s first emperor. His autocratic rule ended the Roman civil wars. He
was the nephew and adopted heir of Julius Caesar. His iron-fisted rule lasted until his death in AD 14.