Page 32 - Essencials of Sociology

Origins of Sociology 5

Applying the scientific method to social life meant something quite different to
Comte than it does to sociologists today. To Comte, it meant a kind of “armchair
philosophy”—drawing conclusions from informal observations of social life. Comte
did not do what we today call research, and his conclusions have been abandoned. But
because he proposed that we observe and classify human activities to uncover society’s
fundamental laws and coined the term sociology to describe this process, Comte often is
credited with being the founder of sociology.

Herbert Spencer and Social Darwinism

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903), who grew up in England, is sometimes Herbert Spencer (1820–1903),
called the second founder of sociology. Spencer disagreed sharply with sometimes called the second
Comte. He said that sociologists should not guide social reform. If they founder of sociology, coined
did, he said, it would interfere with a natural process that improves soci- the term “survival of the
fittest.” Spencer thought
eties. Societies are evolving from a lower form (“barbarian”) to higher that helping the poor was
(“civilized”) forms. As generations pass, a society’s most capable and wrong, that this merely
intelligent members (“the fittest”) survive, while the less capable die helped the “less fit”
out. These fittest members produce a more advanced society—unless survive.
misguided do-gooders get in the way and help the less fit (the lower
classes) survive.
Spencer called this principle the survival of the fittest.
Although Spencer coined this phrase, it usually is credited to
his contemporary, Charles Darwin. Where Spencer proposed
that societies evolve over time as the fittest people adapt to
their environment, Darwin applied this idea to organisms.
Because Darwin is better known, Spencer’s idea is called social
Darwinism. History is fickle, and if fame had gone the other way, we might be
speaking of “biological Spencerism.”
Like Comte, Spencer did armchair philosophy instead of conducting scientific
research.

Karl Marx and Class Conflict

Karl Marx (1818–1883) not only influenced sociology but also left his Karl Marx (1818–1883) believed that
mark on world history. Marx’s influence has been so great that even the roots of human misery lay in class
the Wall Street Journal, that staunch advocate of capitalism, has conflict, the exploitation of workers
called him one of the three greatest modern thinkers (the other by those who own the means of
production. Social change, in the
two being Sigmund Freud and Albert Einstein).
form of the workers overthrowing
Like Comte, Marx thought that people should try to change the capitalists was inevitable from
society. His proposal for change was radical: revolution. This got Marx’s perspective. Although Marx
him thrown out of Germany, and he settled in England. Marx did not consider himself a sociologist,
believed that the engine of human history is class conflict. his ideas have influenced many
sociologists, particularly conflict
Society is made up of two social classes, he said, and they
theorists.
are natural enemies: the bourgeoisie (boo-shwa-ZEE) (the
capitalists, those who own the means of production, the
money, land, factories, and machines) and the proletariat (the
exploited workers, who do not own the means of produc-
tion). Eventually, the workers will unite and break their chains of bondage. The workers’ class conflict Marx’s term for the
revolution will be bloody, but it will usher in a classless society, one free of exploitation. struggle between capitalists and
workers
People will work according to their abilities and receive goods and services according to
their needs (Marx and Engels 1848/1967). bourgeoisie Marx’s term for capi-
Marxism is not the same as communism. Although Marx proposed revolution as the talists, those who own the means of
way for workers to gain control of society, he did not develop the political system called production
communism. This is a later application of his ideas. Marx himself felt disgusted when proletariat Marx’s term for the
he heard debates about his insights into social life. After listening to some of the posi- exploited class, the mass of work-
tions attributed to him, he shook his head and said, “I am not a Marxist” (Dobriner ers who do not own the means of
production
1969:222; Gitlin 1997:89).