Page 114 - Western Civilization A Brief History, Volume I To 1715 9th - Jackson J. Spielvogel

Athena, Ares, and all the gods and goddesses, I will abide by the peace, and I will not break the agreements with Philip the Macedonian, nor will I take up arms with hos- tile intent against any one of those who abide by the oaths either by land or by sea.”1
Although Philip allowed the Greek city-states autonomy in domestic affairs, he retained the general direction of their foreign affairs. Philip insisted that the Greek states end their bitter rivalries and cooperate with him in a war against Persia. Before Philip could undertake his invasion of Asia, however, he was assas- sinated, leaving the task to his son Alexander.
Alexander the Great
Alexander was only twenty when he became king of Macedonia. The illustrious conqueror had in many ways been prepared for kingship by his father, who had taken Alexander along on military campaigns and had put him in command of the cavalry at the important Battle of Chaeronea. After his father’s assassination, Alexander moved quickly to assert his authority, secur- ing the Macedonian frontiers and smothering a rebel- lion in Greece. He then turned to his father’s dream, the invasion of the Persian Empire.
THE CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER There is no doubt that Alexander was taking a chance in attacking the Persian Empire. Although weakened in some respects, it was still a strong state. Alexander’s fleet was inferior to the Persian navy, and his finances were shaky at best. In the spring of 334 B.C.E., Alexander entered Asia Minor with an army of some 37,000 men. About half were Macedonians, the rest Greeks and other allies. The cav- alry, which would play an important role as a strike force, numbered about 5,000.
Alexander’s first confrontation with the Persians, in a battle at the Granicus River in 334 B.C.E. (see Map 4.1), nearly cost him his life but resulted in a major victory. By spring 333 B.C.E., the entire west- ern half of Asia Minor was in Alexander’s hands, and the Ionian Greek cities of western Asia Minor had been “liberated” from the Persian oppressor. Mean- while, the Persian king, Darius III, mobilized his forces to stop Alexander’s army. Although the Per- sian troops outnumbered Alexander’s, the Battle of Issus was fought on a narrow field that canceled the advantage of superior numbers and resulted in another Macedonian success. The Persian cause was certainly not helped when Darius made a spectacular
76 Chapter 4 The Hellenistic World
Alexander the Great. This marble head of Alexander the Great was made in the second or first century B.C.E. The long hair and tilt of his head reflect the descriptions of Alexander in the literary sources of the time. This portrait shows a youthful and even godlike appearance. Alexander claimed to be descended from Heracles, a Greek hero worshiped as a god, and as pharaoh of Egypt, he gained recognition as a living deity. It is reported that one statue, now lost, showed Alexander gazing at Zeus. At the base of the statue were the words “I place the earth under my sway; you, O Zeus, keep Olympus.”
exit from the battlefield before it was even clear who would win. After his victory at Issus in 333 B.C.E., Alexander turned south, and by the winter of 332 B.C.E., Syria, Palestine, and Egypt were under his domination. He took the traditional title of pharaoh of Egypt and founded the first of a series of cities named after him (Alexandria) as the Greek adminis- trative capital of Egypt. It became (and remains today) one of Egypt’s and the Mediterranean world’s most important cities.
The next year, Alexander renewed his offensive, moving into the territory of the ancient Mesopota- mian kingdoms and fighting a decisive battle with the Persians not far from Babylon. At Gaugamela
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