Page 159 - Western Civilization A Brief History, Volume I To 1715 9th - Jackson J. Spielvogel

the next two hundred years. The Romans felt that their divine mission was clearly to rule nations and peoples. Hadrian, one of the emperors of the second century C.E., was but one of many Roman rulers who believed in Rome’s mission. A strong and intelligent ruler who took his responsibilities seriously, between 121 and 132 he visited all of the provinces in the empire. When he arrived in a province, Hadrian dealt firsthand with any problems and bestowed many favors on the local population. He also worked to establish the boundaries of the provinces and provide for their defense. New fortifications, such as the eighty- mile-long Hadrian’s Wall across northern Britain, were built to defend the borders. Hadrian insisted on rigid discipline for frontier armies and demanded that the soldiers be kept in training “just as if war were imminent.” He also tried to lead by personal example; according to his Roman biographer, Aelius Spartianus, he spent time with the troops and “cheerfully ate out of doors such camp food as bacon, cheese, and vinegar.” Moreover, he “would walk as much as twenty miles fully armed.”
The Romans imposed their peace on the largest empire established in antiquity. Indeed, Rome’s writers proclaimed that “by heaven’s will my Rome shall be capital of the world.”1 Those writers were not quite accurate, but few Romans were aware of the Han Empire, which flourished at the same time (202 B.C.E.–221 C.E.) and extended from Central Asia to the Pacific. Although there was little contact between them, the Han and Roman Empires had remarkable similarities: they both lasted for centuries; they both had great success in establishing centralized control; and they both maintained their law and political institutions, technical skills, and languages throughout their empires.
By the third century C.E., however, Rome’s ability to rule nations and people began to weaken as the Roman Empire began to experience renewed civil war, economic chaos, and invasions. In the meantime, the growth of Christianity, one of the remarkable success stories of Western civilization, led to the emergence of a new and vibrant institution.
The Age of Augustus (31 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)
Q FOCUS QUESTION: In his efforts to solve the problems Rome had faced during the late republic, what changes did Augustus make in Rome’s political, military, and social institutions?
In 27 B.C.E., Octavian proclaimed the “restoration of the republic.” He understood that only traditional republi- can forms would satisfy the senatorial aristocracy. At the same time, Octavian was aware that the republic could not be fully restored and managed to arrive at a compromise that worked at least during his lifetime. In 27 B.C.E., the senate awarded him the title of Augustus, “revered one.” He preferred the title princeps (PRIN-keps or PRIN-seps), meaning “chief citizen” or “first among equals.” The system of rule that Augustus established is sometimes called the principate, conveying the idea of a constitutional monarch as co-ruler with the senate. But while Augustus worked to maintain this appearance, in reality power was heavily weighted in favor of the princeps.
The New Order
In the new constitutional order that Augustus created, the basic governmental structure consisted of the princeps (Augustus) and an aristocratic senate. Augus- tus retained the senate as the chief deliberative body of the Roman state. Its decrees, screened in advance by the princeps, now had the effect of law. The title of princeps carried no power in itself, but Augustus held the office of consul each year until 23 B.C.E., when he assumed the power of a tribune, which enabled him to propose laws and veto any item of public business. By observing proper legal forms for his power, Augustus proved highly popular. As the Roman historian Tacitus commented, “Indeed, he attracted everybody’s goodwill by the enjoyable gift of peace. . . . Opposition did not exist.”2 No doubt the ending of the civil wars had greatly bolstered Augustus’s popularity (see the box on p. 123). At the same time, his continuing con- trol of the army, while making possible the Roman peace, was a crucial source of his power.
THE MILITARY As a result of the civil wars of the first century B.C.E., the Roman army increased in size and became more professional, with legionaries who served
The Age of Augustus (31 B.C.E.–14 C.E.) 121
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