Page 163 - Western Civilization A Brief History, Volume I To 1715 9th - Jackson J. Spielvogel

principate had been revealed: it was possible, it seemed, for an emperor to be chosen outside Rome.”5
The Five “Good Emperors” (96–180)
Many historians see the pax Romana (PAKS or PAHKS ro-MAH-nuh) (the “Roman peace”) and the prosperity it engendered as the chief benefits of Roman rule during the first and second centuries C.E. These benefits were especially noticeable during the reigns of five so-called good emperors who presided over a period of peace and prosperity that lasted almost a hundred years. These men—Nerva (NUR-vuh), Trajan (TRAY-jun), Hadrian (HAY-dree-un), Antoninus Pius (an-tuh-NY-nuss PY-uss), and Marcus Aurelius (MAR-kuss aw-REE-lee- uss)—treated the ruling classes with respect, cooperated with the senate, ended arbitrary executions, maintained peace throughout the empire, and supported domestic policies generally beneficial to the empire. Though abso- lute monarchs, they were known for their tolerance and diplomacy. By adopting capable men as their successors, the first four good emperors reduced the chances of suc- cession problems.
Under the five good emperors, the powers of the emperor continued to be extended at the expense of the senate. Increasingly, imperial officials appointed and directed by the emperor took over the running of the government. The good emperors also extended the scope of imperial administration to areas previ- ously untouched by the imperial government. Trajan (98–117) established a program that provided state funds to assist poor parents in raising and educating their children.
The good emperors were widely praised by their subjects for their extensive building programs. Trajan and Hadrian (117–138) were especially active in con- structing public works—aqueducts, bridges, roads, and harbor facilities—throughout the provinces and in Rome. Trajan built a new forum in Rome to provide a setting for his celebrated victory column. Hadrian’s Pantheon, a temple of “all the gods,” is one of the grandest ancient buildings surviving in Rome.
The Roman Empire at Its Height:
Frontiers and Provinces
Although Trajan broke with Augustus’s policy of defensive imperialism by extending Roman rule into Dacia (modern Romania), Mesopotamia, and the Sinai peninsula, his con- quests represent the high-water mark of Roman expan- sion (see Map 6.1). His successors recognized that the
empire was overextended and pursued a policy of retrenchment. Hadrian withdrew Roman forces from much of Mesopotamia. Although he retained Dacia and Arabia, he went on the defensive in his frontier policy, reinforcing the fortifications along a line connecting the Rhine and Danube Rivers and building a defensive wall eighty miles long to keep the Scots out of Roman Britain. By the end of the second century, the vulnerability of the empire had become apparent. Frontiers were stabilized, and the Roman forces were established in permanent bases behind the frontiers. But when one frontier was attacked, troops had to be drawn from other frontiers, leaving those borders vulnerable to attack. The empire lacked a real strategic reserve, and in the next century its weakness would be ever more apparent.
At its height in the second century, the Roman Empire was one of the greatest states the world had seen. It covered about 3.5 million square miles, and like the empire of Han China, it had a population estimated at more than 50 million. While the emperors and the imperial administration provided a degree of unity, considerable leeway was given to local customs, and the privileges of Roman citizenship were extended to many people throughout the empire. In 212, the em- peror Caracalla (kar-uh-KAL-uh) completed the process by giving Roman citizenship to every free inhabitant of the empire. Latin was the language of the western part of the empire, while Greek was used in the east. Roman culture spread to all parts of the empire; however, there were limits to Romanization because local lan- guages persisted and many of the empire’s residents spoke neither Latin nor Greek.
CITIES AND ROMANIZATION The administration and cul- tural life of the Roman Empire depended greatly on cities and towns. A provincial governor’s staff was not large, so local city officials were expected to act as Roman agents in carrying out many government func- tions, especially those related to taxes. Most towns and cities were not large by modern standards. The biggest was Rome, but there were also some large cities in the East: Alexandria in Egypt numbered over 300,000 inhab- itants, Ephesus in Asia Minor had 200,000, and Antioch in Syria housed around 150,000. In the West, cities were usually small, with only a few thousand inhabitants. Cities were important in the spread of Roman culture, law, and the Latin language. They were also uniform in physical appearance, with similar temples, markets, amphitheaters, and other public buildings.
Magistrates and town councillors chosen from the ranks of the wealthy upper classes directed municipal
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