Page 206 - Western Civilization A Brief History, Volume I To 1715 9th - Jackson J. Spielvogel

Muslims Celebrate the End of Ramadan. Ramadan is the holy month of Islam during which all Muslims must fast from dawn to sunset. Observance of this holy month is regarded as one of the Five Pillars of the faith. This Persian miniature depicts Muslims on horseback celebrating the end of Ramadan. Although Islam prohibited the representation of humans, Persians did not follow such restrictions.
In accordance with Bedouin custom, males were per- mitted to have more than one wife, but Muhammad attempted to limit the practice by restricting the num- ber of wives to four.
The Spread of Islam
The death of Muhammad presented his followers with a dilemma. Muhammad had never named a successor, and although he had several daughters, he left no sons. In a male-oriented society, who would lead the commu- nity of the faithful? Shortly after Muhammad’s death, some of his closest followers selected Abu Bakr (ah-boo BAHK-ur), a wealthy merchant who was Muhammad’s father-in-law, as caliph (KAY-luff), or temporal leader, of the Islamic community.
Muhammad and the early caliphs who succeeded him took up the Arabic tribal custom of the razzia or raid in the struggle against their enemies. Some have called this activity a jihad (ji-HAHD), which they mis- leadingly interpret as a “holy war.” Jihad actually means “striving in the way of the Lord” to achieve per- sonal betterment, although it can also mean a fair, de- fensive fight to preserve one’s life and one’s faith. Arab conquests were not carried out to convert others, because conversion to Islam was purely voluntary. Those who did not convert were required only to sub- mit to Muslim rule and pay taxes.
The Byzantines and the Persians were the first to feel the strength of the newly united Arabs. At Yarmuk in 636, the Muslims defeated the Byzantine army, and by 640, they had taken possession of the province of Syria (see Map 7.5). To the east, the Arabs went on to conquer the Persian Empire by 650. In the meantime, Egypt and other areas of northern Africa had been added to the new Muslim empire. Led by a series of brilliant generals, the Arabs had put together a large and highly motivated army, whose valor was enhanced by the belief that Muslim warriors were guaranteed a place in paradise if they died in battle.
Early caliphs, ruling from Medina, organized their newly conquered territories into taxpaying provinces. By the mid-seventh century, problems arose again over the succession to the Prophet until Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, was assassinated and the general Muawiya (moo-AH-wee-yah), the governor of Syria and one of Ali’s chief rivals, became caliph in 661. He was known for one outstanding virtue: he used force only when necessary. Muawiya moved quickly to make the caliph- ate hereditary in his own family, thus establishing the Umayyad (oo-MY-ad) Dynasty. As one of its first actions, the Umayyad Dynasty moved the capital of the Muslim empire from Medina to Damascus in Syria. This internal dissension over the caliphate created a split in Islam between the Shi’ites, or those who accepted only the descendants of Ali, Muhammad’s
168 Chapter 7 Late Antiquity and the Emergence of the Medieval World
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