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52 Women in the Economy (MWG-011)
assumed to be inversely related to the number of intervening opportunities. In other words, number
of persons moving for a given distance is directly proportional to the number of opportunities at the
destination and inversely proportional to the number of intervening opportunities. So, the nature of
place is more important than distance. Stouffer further revised his own model as ‘Competing Migrant
Model’.
Todaro Model (1971) talks about the economic factors that are most influential among the push-pull
factors. Individual migrants necessarily weigh the economic costs versus benefits. Thus, Policy makers
can slow rural migration by creating investment and new employment opportunities in the rural
areas. The Gravity Model is based on Newton’s Law of Gravitation and was expanded by William J.
Reilly in 1931. As per the model, the number of people moving between places ‘A’ and ‘B’ is equal to
the population of ‘A’ multiplied by the population of ‘B’ divided by the square of the distance between
them. In other words, movement of persons between two urban centers would be proportional to the
product of their population and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between them.
The potential number of migrants will be bigger where the population of the place of departure and
arrival are large. This model was further modified to include social factors.

Q3. What are the determinants of migration?
Ans. Migration is driven by perceived differences in the utility of living or working in two
geographical locations. In general, migration is stimulated not only by economic motivations but also
by the desire to escape conflict and relocate to ethnic homelands in many instances. People move for a
variety of reasons. They consider the advantages and disadvantages of staying versus moving, as well
as factors such as distance, travel cost, travel time, modes of transportation, terrain and cultural
barriers.
Causes of migration have modified over hundreds of years. Some causes are constant; some of them
do not carry the same importance as years ago. (For example: in 18th and 19th centuries labor
migration did not have the same character like today.)
The motivations for migration may be stylistically described as the combinations of social, ethnic, and
politically related push and pull factors. Most migration literature makes a distinction between ‘pull’
and ‘push’ factors, which however do not operate in isolation of one another. Mobility occurs when
workers in source areas lack suitable options for employment/livelihood, and there are some
expectations of improvement in circumstances through migration. In general factors causing
migration can be divided into two groups: Push factors and Pull factors.
Push factors: Push factors are those factors, which forcefully push people into migration. Push
factor relates to the country from which a person migrates and they are forceful. It is generally some
problem, which results in people wanting to migrate. A push factor is a flaw or distress that drives a
person away from certain place. It is a reason for emigrating (leaving a place) because of difficulty.
Some of the push factors are-food shortage, war, not enough jobs, few opportunities, primitive
conditions, political fear, poor medical care, not being able to practice religion, loss of wealth, natural
disasters, death threats, slavery, pollution, poor housing, landlords, bullying, poor chances of finding
courtship etc.
Pull factors: Pull factors are those, which attract people into migration. A pull factor is something
concerning the country to which a person migrates. It is generally a benefit that attracts people to a
certain place. It is a reason for immigrating (moving into a place) because of something desirable.
Some of the pull factors are-job opportunities, better living conditions such as a nicer climate, political
and/or religious freedom, enjoyment, education, better medical care, security, family links, better
chances of finding courtship etc.
Socio-cultural and psychological factors Apart from economic factors, migration is influenced by the
social structure. Along with inter regional disparity; disparity between different socio- economic
classes accelerates the process of migration. Poor and landless, who mostly belong to lower caste,
indigenous communities from economically backward regions migrate for survival. Social cultural and
psychological factors can be classified as following:
• Family structure
• Family conflict
• Marriage
• Social position Social pressure and discrimination based on ethnicity, gender, religion and the
like.
• Availability of basic amenities, social services and welfare facilities.
Political freedom like right to select government, right to execute all fundamental rights etc. also
plays an important role in motivating people to migrate. But in adverse political conditions like
oppressive legal conditions, military draft, warfare, expulsion by armed force or coercion, lack of
political or religious freedom enforce a mass migration as experienced time and again in case of