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a difficult task but being able to study it with the intent to be unbiased while also hoping to advance the nature

of the particular research is very beneficial.

Shamanism has many psychological aspects of its own. The journal article, Shamanic Universals and

Evolutionary Psychology by Michael Winkelman provides a magnitude of insight of what this truly looks like.

One of the most prevalent psychological connections that can be found is through the use of altered states of

consciousness (ASC). Winkelman explains that, “logical conditions of ASC involve integrative processes

across structural and functional units of the brain. This biologically based mode of consciousness involves

production of a parasympathetic dominant state in the autonomic nervous system and interhemispheric

synchronization in the frontal cortex by high voltage slow wave EEG activity that originates in the

serotonergic circuits linking the brain stem and the hippocampal-septal area of the limbic system. This high-

voltage slow-wave EEG activity derives from limbic discharges and imposes synchronous alpha and theta

brain waves patterns on the frontal lobes. This results in: interhemispheric synchronization and coherence;

brain stem-limbic integration; limbic-cortical integration; and integration across the neuraxis, producing a

synthesis of emotion, thought and behavior. These integrative brain conditions are produced by many

shamanistic activities including drug and non-drug ASC induction conditions, temporal lobe syndromes,

hallucinogens and hypnosis” (64). This intense pathway of neurological occurrences is something that can

also be seen in the world of psychotherapy, potentially at an even lesser frequency. The focus that shamanic

rituals have on altered states of consciousness shows just how important taking control of oneself through the

power of the mind is throughout the process of healing. During some practices, this state is reached through

different drugs or plants such as ayahuasca or San Pedro.

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