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sorting information by time, place and category. As
identification of categories increases, so does memory due
to having better storage and retrieval strategies. Improved
memory helps with intentionality, keeping sequences in
mind and following stepwise instructions.

Executive functioning processes in middle to late
childhood include the following:
 Ability to solve a problem and generate ideas about
actions to take
 Knowing cognitive strategies to help in problem-
solving
 Knowing when to activate cognitive rules and
strategies to solve problems
 Flexible approach to problem-solving
 Longer attention span, resisting distractions and
control of anxiety
 Ability to continuously monitor performance
 Trust in ability to think about problems
 Awareness of shortcomings in thinking
(Kagan, 1984)

As part of the increase in cognitive development, there is
an increase in self-regulation (the ability to act pro-socially).
The child in this age band has the ability to appraise various
situations and he/she has ever improving capacities for self
control. Psychological defenses are becoming more
sophisticated (see description of psychological defenses at
the beginning of this chapter) and this assists children to
avoid distressing feelings and manage behavior. The
development of defenses also helps in the tolerance of pain
and allows the child to focus on here and now versus the
past. This age group is aware of social norms and they tend
towards wanting to fit adult standards. Children can now
identify reasons for conformity or following rules using