Page 32 - A Chain of Miracles

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THE MIRACULOUS FORMATION OF CARBON
Carbon, the “element of life,” is produced only by miracu-
lous nuclear reactions taking place in the core of huge stars. If
there were no such reactions, there would not be carbon—or any
other elements—in the universe and therefore, no life. We say
“miraculous” because these transformations cannot take place
under normal conditions, but require a combination of the most
improbable factors.
Carbon atoms are produced in the core of huge stars by a
two-tier process. First, two helium atoms fuse to produce a tran-
sitional element with four protons and four neutrons called

beryllium. When a third helium atom fuses with beryllium, they
produce a carbon atom with six protons and neutrons.
The beryllium atom produced in the first stage of this
process is different from the beryllium atoms found on Earth,
since the element beryllium listed in our periodic table boasts
one additional neutron. The unusual beryllium isotope found in
red giants has long puzzled scientists, since it is extremely un-
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stable, so much so that it disintegrates 0.000000000000001 (10 )
seconds after it was formed.

So how can this beryllium isotope become carbon, if it is ef-
fectively destroyed in the same instant it is formed? Do the he-
lium atoms that fuse with the beryllium isotope do so by chance?
Most certainly not, as this is more improbable than two bricks
blown apart within the space of 0.000000000000001 seconds
being joined a third, thus eventually forming a whole building.
Paul Davies describes this miraculous process as follows:

While investigating the nuclear reactions that lead to the forma-
tion of carbon in the stellar cores, [Fred] Hoyle was struck by the

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