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Plate 2.5a–d Guns from Bakau
shipwreck, early 15th century. The
Maritime Experiential Museum,
Resorts World Sentosa Singapore
a) Dimensions: length b) Dimensions: length c) Dimensions: d) Dimensions:
407mm x width 111mm 235mm x width 46mm length 355mm x length 347mm x
width 51mm width 571mm

century, when international linkages were entirely flowing from ‘tribute missions’ suggests that some would
dependent on shipping, than they are today, and managing likely have gladly sent tribute and personally travelled to the
this waterway was an essential first step in controlling the Ming court. However, the number of Southeast Asian rulers
region. It was also thus that the Ming assisted the growth of travelling to China with the Zheng He missions suggests that
the new polity of Melaka, around the Ming maritime base at coercion must have been an important element. There are
that place. The links between Melaka and the Ming thereby very few other examples of rulers visiting other polities
remained intimate for much of the 15th century. The degree within Southeast Asia in this period, suggesting that some
to which the development of the port city of Melaka and the great pressure must have been imposed on them to
northern port polities of Sumatra was a product of Ming encourage them to journey to the Ming court and thereby
policies in Southeast Asia at this period, needs to be further demonstrate their subordinate status before the Chinese
investigated. emperor.
The military aspect of these voyages (Pl. 2.5a–d) needs These were missions intended to coerce and obtain
underlining, in part because of the stress placed on these control of ports and shipping lanes. It was not control of
missions in current scholarship in the People’s Republic of territory which was sought, an element which came with
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China as ‘voyages of friendship’. A large proportion of the later imperialism, but rather political and economic control
members of the missions were military personnel, and in a across space, control of economic lifelines, nodal points and
Ming shilu reference of 1427, there is reference to ‘10,000 crack networks. By controlling ports and trade routes, one
troops who had formerly been sent to the Western Ocean’, controlled trade, an essential element for the missions’
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suggesting that a great number were highly trained military treasure-collecting tasks. The colonial armies which
men. It is obvious that such a force would have played a manned these ships were the tools necessary to ensure that
major threatening role, useful in encouraging recalcitrant the control was maintained. In their methods, the Ming,
foreign rulers to travel to the Ming court. However, there through these maritime missions, was engaged in what
were other times when more than military threat was might be called proto-colonialism. That is, they were
required, and the history of the Zheng He voyages is replete engaged in that early form of colonialism by which a
with violence as the eunuch commanders tried to implement dominant maritime power took control (either through force
the Ming emperor’s demands. Major military actions or the threat thereof) of the main port polities along the
included the following: attack on the Old Port Pacification major east–west maritime trade network, as well as the seas
Superintendency in Sumatra (1407); deployment of troops in between, thereby gaining economic and political benefits.
Java (1407); threats against Burma (1409); attack on Sri
Lanka (1411); attack on and capture of Suganla in Samudera Overseas domination II: formal declaration of suzerainty
(1415); and attack on and razing of Ayudhya (1400s, precise abroad
date unknown). 67 The actions which Ming emperors pursued in respect of
These examples suggest that the maritime forces sent offshore lands and polities differed with time and place. The
abroad in the first third of the 15th century were intended to topos of the emperor as supreme and virtuous mediator of all
achieve the recognition of Ming preeminence among all the relations in tianxia 天下 (the known world) was stressed in the
polities of the known maritime world. Those who would not rhetoric of Chinese accounts. Thus the emperor was
recognise this supremacy of the Ming were subjected to responsible for ‘enfeoffing’ rulers beyond the formal limits of
military force. This is not to say that all polities needed the Ming empire, and charging them to look after their
military coercion. The existence of economic benefits people. The removal of unworthy rulers was also inherent in

Domination in Four Keys: Ming China and its Southern Neighbours 1400–1450 | 21