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76 Hand-Rearing Birds

(1.5 m) in height and weigh 44–55 lb (20–25 kg); the Lesser Rhea is approximately half this size.
Rheas have gray‐brown plumage and are not sexually dimorphic, although males are slightly larger
and darker. Rheas have moderately sized wings and three forward‐facing toes.
Cassowaries (Order Struthioniformes, Family Casuariidae) are found within tropical rainforests
in Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia (Folch 1992c). There are three species: the Southern
or Double‐wattled Cassowary (Casuarius casuarius), the Northern or Single‐wattled Cassowary
(Casuarius unappendiculatus), and the Dwarf Cassowary (Casuarius bennetti). The Southern
Cassowary, the species most commonly held in captivity, measures in height 4.3–5.6 ft. (1.3–1.7 m),
with weights of 64–75 lb (29–34 kg) for males, and up to 125 lb (58 kg) for females. Northern and
Southern Cassowaries are similar in size; Dwarf Cassowaries are smaller. Cassowaries have glossy
black hairlike feathers and brightly colored featherless facial and neck skin, with colored wattles
hanging from the sides or front of the neck. Cassowary wings are vestigial and end in a claw.
Cassowaries have three forward‐facing toes ending in strong, and sometimes very long, nails.
Kiwis (Order Apterygiformes, Family Apterygidae) live in forested zones in New Zealand. Five
species of kiwi exist: the Southern Brown (Apteryx australis), North Island Brown (Apteryx man-
telli), Okarito or Rowi (Apteryx rowi), Little Spotted (Apteryx owenii), and Great Spotted (Apteryx
haastii). These small birds, the larger females weighing up to 7.7 lb (3.5 kg), are nocturnal, spend-
ing their days in burrows (Folch 1992a; Sales 2005). Kiwis have long decurved beaks with nostrils
at their tips; they rely more on scent and hearing than they do vision. Kiwis have three cranial‐fac-
ing and one rear‐facing toe.
Tinamous (Order Tinamiformes, Family Tinamidae) are relatively small, compact, partridge‐
like birds belonging to 9 genera with 47 species (Cabot 1992). Body weight ranges from 43 g for the
dwarf tinamous (Taoniscus nanus) to 1800 g for the Solitary Tinamou (Tinamus solitarius).
Tinamou species can be found in a variety of forest, scrub and grassland habitats from north‐west
Mexico through much of South America. Tinamou eggs have a highly polished, glossy surface and
a wide range of colors, depending on species.
The information contained in this chapter refers primarily to the species held most commonly in
captivity, the ostrich, emu, and rhea, unless otherwise noted.

­ Criteria­for Intervention

In captivity, natural incubation and parental raising of ratite chicks is unusual. In commercial set-
tings, ostrich, emu, and rhea eggs are collected, artificially incubated, and most commonly raised
apart from adults, although they may occasionally be fostered back to breeding pairs. Ratite chicks
are precocial but would normally stay with their parents for a period of months. Chicks may be
recognized as requiring intervention at the time of hatching, or might be removed from their
groups of conspecifics for reasons including obvious illness (e.g. anorexia, dehydration, depres-
sion, inactivity), injury, developing limb deformities (e.g. torsional, valgus, varus), and significantly
delayed growth (Figure 4.1).
Ratite chicks are normally alert, social, and inquisitive and, especially ostriches, are highly
stressed by changes in management and by being isolated from their companions. Extensive pick-
ing at nonfood items may indicate stress and be a predictor for poor‐doing ostrich chicks, with
anorexia, gastric stasis, and death resulting (Deeming and Bubier 1999).
The days of incubation and percentage of weight loss during incubation follow normal
distribution curves; hence, a spread of values within a hatch is to be expected. Specifically designed
and commercially available computer programs and computerized incubation systems are also