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80 Hand-Rearing Birds

result of genetics or problems during incubation. Stunted growth and poor feathering are evidence
of chronic disease or maladaptation.
Supportive care, including provision of supplementary heat and fluid and nutritional support, is
critical regardless of the primary concern. Because there are no medications licensed for use in
ratites in the majority of countries of the world, veterinarians must prescribe and use drugs in an
“off‐label” manner as governed by their veterinary associations. Medications may be administered
orally via stomach tube, or birds may be manually pilled. Many will even preferentially peck at and
consume tablets or capsules because of their unusual appearance. Placing medication in the food
or water may be appropriate in some circumstances providing there is adequate intake.
Esophagostomy tubes have been used for long‐term nutritional supplementation; ratites do not
have a crop in which to store food. Injections can be made subcutaneously, into the muscle masses
of the legs or lumbar area, or intravenously via the medial metatarsal vein. In larger juveniles, the
jugular – or in the ostrich, the brachial – vein is also used. In older birds intended for the slaughter
market, intramuscular injections can result in condemnation or trimming of meat.
Young ratites are easily caught and handled. Small chicks may be supported under the body with
the legs folded or left to hang. Birds may also be laid upside down in one’s lap to examine the abdo-
men or legs. As chicks grow, their running speed increases exponentially and it is important not to
cause injury by panicking the birds or by rough handling of the legs during catching. The use of
corrals or chutes, or boards used for herding, can aid in isolating and capturing individual birds in
need of attention. Juvenile birds may be lifted off the ground from behind, leaving their legs dan-
gling free. After a short period of kicking, most birds relax and may be carried without a struggle.
Older juvenile birds should be treated like adults, which are large and strong and may seriously
injure the handler.
Common medical problems in ratite chicks include yolk sac retention and infection, nutritional
deficiencies, developmental limb deformity, gastric impaction, enteritis, respiratory disease, and
fading ostrich syndrome. For a more detailed description of these and other diseases of ratites the
reader should consult the veterinary literature (Jensen et al. 1992; Tulley and Shane 1996;
Huchzermeyer 1998; Tulley and Shane 1998; Verwoerd 2000; Jakob‐Hoff 2001; Doneley 2006;
Morgan 2008; Romagnano et al. 2012; Biggs 2013; Kummrow 2014).

Yolk­Sac­Problems

Yolk sac retention and infection are generally identified in birds under two weeks of age, but may
result in more chronic ill‐thrift. Chicks with yolk sac problems are often reluctant to feed and fail to
gain weight and grow at the same rate as their clutchmates. The yolk sac should be completely
retracted into the body at the time of hatch, the navel closed before removal from the hatcher, and the
yolk sac completely resorbed by 2–3 weeks after hatch. The kiwi is the exception to this; almost half
the yolk mass is present at hatching, and may provide nutrients to the chick for up to 17 days
(Prinzinger and Dietz 2002). The abdomen in chicks with persistent and infected yolk sacs is fuller
than normal, and the normal intestinal tract and its contents cannot be palpated. Ultrasound exami-
nation can help confirm the diagnosis. Improper incubation and hatching parameters resulting in
delayed umbilical closure, prematurely assisted hatching, and inadequate hygiene leading to umbili-
cal infection are the common predisposing factors. If only a small portion of the sac remains external
at hatch, it may sometimes be replaced in the abdomen and the navel sutured or bandaged closed.
Large or abnormal portions of the sac should be removed surgically and the yolk sac stalk ligated and
umbilicus closed; however, these chicks are often weak and reluctant to eat. In older chicks, surgical
removal of the sac and systemic antibiotic therapy are required, along with supportive care.