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Ratites 85

confined area with supplementary heating to compensate for the young birds’ poor thermoregula-
tion – and then into larger pen or paddock areas, preferably with access to the outdoors if climate
conditions permit.
Pen size is dependent on the size and number of animals in the group but should be sufficient to
allow the birds to move about freely and to exercise as they grow. A rough guide for brooder pen
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size is 8 ft. (2.4 m ) with 2 ft. (0.6 m) sides (Jensen et al. 1992). The temperature is gradually dropped
from an initial high of 90 °F (32 °C) to approximately 79 °F (26 °C). Chicks are kept in groups so
they can socialize and huddle together for comfort and warmth at night. Similar‐sized chicks
should be kept together to prevent bullying and crowding at feeders. Ideal stocking densities have
not been determined. As birds grow, they are given access to larger pens and, depending on ambi-
ent temperature, may be confined to or simply provided with heated areas at night. Localized heat
may be provided by underfloor and radiant heaters.
Runs must be well drained with good footing and should be practical to clean and sanitize. All
in–all out systems and leaving pens fallow after a group of chicks has been in them helps reduce
pathogen load. Chicks respond poorly to changes in their environment; therefore, it is recom-
mended to keep groups of birds together during the growing period, and whenever possible to
maintain them in the same physical location until they are well established.
It is essential that even the youngest chicks be given sufficient room to allow adequate exercise.
In the wild, young birds of all species follow their parent(s) for many kilometers each day. Lack of
exercise is felt to be one of the main predisposing factors for the variety of leg deformities seen in
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growing birds. Minimum pen area is approximately 40 ft. (3.7 m ) for birds less than 2 months of
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age, or less than 20 lb (9 kg) in weight, and 225–250 ft. (21–23 m ) for older or heavier birds (Raines
1998). Pens should be rectangular with lengths of 100–200 ft. (30–60 m) and a minimum width of
approximately 10 ft. (3 m) (Jensen et al. 1992; Minaar 1998; Raines 1998). Width and total pen size
will depend on the number of chicks in the group. In colder climates, the use of large greenhouse
structures is effective in providing chicks hatched in winter months – for example, emus – with
exercise as well as exposure to sunlight and natural light cycles (Figure 4.4).
Older birds are kept outdoors in fenced paddocks or pens. To prevent injuries, fences should be
6 ft. (1.8 m), have a smooth and solid top rail, and be easily visible. Shade should be provided in the
summer, and in temperate climates protection must be given from the coldest weather and wind.
Adult ratites of commercially raised species are able to tolerate full winter temperatures if appro-
priate shelters are present; however, icy or slippery footing may be dangerous for the birds. Barns
are rarely heated unless they also contain young birds.
It is critical that ratites are exposed early to the types of bedding used on the farm. The rate of
proventricular impaction in ostrich and rhea chicks is extremely high and is often associated with
changes in management that include alterations in bedding substrates. Chicks that will be put out
on grass should be watched carefully for early signs of impaction if they have not had access to the
outdoors as young birds.

­ Preparation­for Socialization­or­Introduction­to Captive­Flock

Young ratites are sociable and become easily accustomed to human contact. Caution should be
taken working with birds as they gain adult sizes, particularly as they reach sexual maturity and in
breeding season. Cassowaries and male ostriches can be extremely dangerous.
In general, young birds are not aggressive toward each other; however, some caution must be
undertaken when chicks or juveniles are reintroduced to similarly aged conspecifics. Smaller birds