Page 72 - Zoo Animal Learning and Training

44 3 The Ultimate Benefits of Learning

VetBooks.ir as a generalised effect of the enrichment on spent interacting with the puzzle and the
ability of the animal to gain food, but has
behaviour. There has been a recent rise in the
number of published articles investigating
environment itself given the animal choice
sensory based enrichment such as music (e.g. the process of gaining information from the
chimpanzees, Wallace et al. 2017; gorillas, and control, and as such are there other
Brooker 2016; exotic song birds, Robbins and behavioural measures of enhanced welfare
Margulis 2016), audiobooks (e.g. dogs, we should consider (see Chapter 11).
Brayley and Montrose 2016), naturalistic
sounds (e.g. exotic songbirds, Robbins and 3.4.2 Learning Opportunities Lead
Margulis 2016) and olfactory stimuli (e.g. to Enhanced Cognitive Function
lemurs, Baker et al. 2018; felids, Damasceno
et al. 2017; Vidal et al. 2016; Martínez‐Macipe Is the cliché of use it or lose it valid in the
et al. 2015). These studies cover numerous case of cognitive ability and if so why? This is
taxa and a wide range of different methodolo- the question posed in Milgram et al.’s (2006)
gies were used but as a general comment we review of cognitive enrichment in humans
can suggest that, where positive behavioural and animals. One of the main concerns in
changes occur, these types of enrichments human neural research is the decline in cog-
have enhanced animal welfare through offer- nitive function with age. Leading a physically
ing intrinsic learning opportunities. and intellectually active life has been shown
Providing learning opportunities may also to provide a protective effect in retaining
infer a benefit to the animal in terms of shap- cognitive abilities. Many of gerontological
ing its personality; if you are raised in an studies are, by their nature, retrospective and
enriched environment do you ultimately often provide conflicting results with regards
develop a personality type different to non‐ to the effect of lifestyle differences, such as
enriched counterparts? It seems that, in rats education, job complexity, hobbies, and so
at least, this is the case. Using operant condi- forth on cognitive function (Milgram et al.
tioning Brydges et al. (2011) trained rats to 2006). For example, education level appears
associate a stimulus, either rough or smooth to have a positive effect on memory retention
sandpaper, with a high‐value (chocolate) or and a protective effect with respect to
standard (cheerio) reward. When given an dementia. Benefits associated with education
intermediate stimulus, a sandpaper grade level in humans however, may only corre-
between the two trained scenarios, ‘optimis- spond to certain tests of cognition; education
tic’ rats chose to forage in the location where primarily affects performance on measures
the high value reward was presented, whereas of crystallised intelligence (construct linked
‘pessimistic’ rats chose to forage in the loca- to acquired experience and knowledge)
tion where the low value reward was pre- rather than fluid intelligence measures (rea-
sented. A comparison of the rats rearing soning ability, more dependent on biology
environment showed that rats raised in rather than experience) (Kramer et al. 2004).
enriched (physical enrichments such as Job complexity (regardless of age) appears to
tubes, sandpaper substrate) conditions reduce the risk of developing cognitive
showed more optimistic responses than their impairment and the risk of developing
counterparts reared in standard cages. Alzheimer’s disease is reduced if hobbies are
These case studies demonstrate the impor- cognitively challenging rather than physically
tance of considering the ‘whole animal’s’ challenging.
response to learning opportunities. The pro- Whilst we will not discuss in detail the
cess of learning itself may proffer benefits mechanisms by which cognitive activity has
that we simply have not considered. For been hypothesised to support indirect bene-
example when providing feeding puzzles we fits, one suggested route is the cognitive
may gauge success by observing the time reserve hypothesis. It is suggested that