Page 45 - Zoo Animal Learning and Training

2.2 Operant Conditioning in the Wild 17

VetBooks.ir 2.2 Operant Conditioning a gazelle, the likelihood of the lion stalking
during a hunt will increase in the future. If a
in the Wild
chimpanzee is able to more easily extract
As you learned in Chapter 1, animals also ants from a log using a long stick, (as we will
learn about relationships in their environ- see later in this chapter), the chimpanzee
ment based on the events that precede may be more likely to manipulate sticks in
(i.e. antecedents) and follow a particular future foraging tasks. If gathering moss for a
behaviour (i.e. its consequences). When this nest is more likely to result in a warmer nest
type of learning occurs, is it termed operant for a bald eagle, then the eagle may be more
conditioning. As discussed in Chapter 4, likely to gather moss during nest construc-
zoos are undoubtedly very well versed in tion in the future. In contrast, negative rein-
operant conditioning procedures in the forcement occurs when a behaviour results
training of their collection animals, but how in the removal of a (usually aversive) stimu-
is operant conditioning useful to an animal lus, and thus, increases the future likelihood
that lives in the wild? of that behaviour. Let’s imagine we are
observing a pack of wolves feeding on a car-
cass, where the dominant male of the pack
2.2.1 Reinforcement
growls at a subordinate pack member that
Reinforcement is a process by which a stim- is also attempting to feed from the carcass. If
ulus change increases the future likelihood of the subordinate wolf ceases to approach the
a behaviour. Animals are reinforced in many carcass or retreats, we would expect the
situations in their natural environment and dominant male to stop growling as well; thus,
reinforcers can take many forms; For example, for the subordinate wolf, retreating is nega-
the provision of food following a successful tively reinforced because the behaviour
hunt, obtaining fresh water after a long trek results in the removal of the aversive stimu-
to a communal watering hole, a positive lus (i.e. growling from the dominant male).
interaction with a conspecific, a safe place to Seen from the perspective of the dominant
rest or hide from predators, or an opportu- wolf, a case could also be made for growling
nity to mate with a conspecific. Many of to be negatively reinforced, because growling
these examples are primary reinforcers that also presumably results in the removal of
are biologically relevant to the organism, the presence of the subordinate wolf.
such as food, water, shelter, and sex. As these Furthermore, individuals can learn through-
stimuli are biologically relevant, they do not out their lifetime that, as pack hierarchies
require any conditioning or learning to shift, these contingencies will apply to differ-
become a reinforcer. In contrast, secondary ent individuals and in different situations.
reinforcers are stimuli that do require condi- Maternal behaviours provide many excellent
tioning or pairing with a primary reinforcer examples of negative reinforcement, as pro-
to become rewarding to an organism. Some viding maternal care to offspring in many
examples of secondary reinforcers in the wild species may result in the removal of species‐
could be something such as finding mating typical distress and contact vocalisations
signals or characteristics of quality habitat. emitted by offspring. These examples help to
Reinforcement can also occur as a contin- demonstrate that it is important to remem-
uum, for example, positive reinforcement ber that negative reinforcement, though it
occurs when a behaviour is followed by the may not be preferred in training contexts, is a
presentation of an (usually) appetitive stimu- natural learning process that allows animals
lus and results in an increased likelihood of to adapt to their natural environments under
the behaviour being performed in the future. certain circumstances.
For example, if stalking silently in under- Although we have just provided some
brush allows a lion to successfully pounce on very clear examples of positive and negative