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F ORUM FORUM | E AS TERN HORIZ ON 5
NEWS | EASTERN HORIZON 577

Mahāyāna sūtras first appeared publicly in India intent—liberation from suffering through the
around the first century BCE. In the last few decades, cultivation of wisdom and compassion. Mahāyāna
many Buddhist manuscripts have been discovered scriptures emphasize that while the outward forms
in Pakistan and Afghanistan, including Mahāyāna of teachings may vary, their essential content must
sūtras. These newly found manuscripts are written in remain consistent with fundamental principles such as
Gāndhārī Prakrit and are older than any previously emptiness, dependent origination, and the bodhisattva
discovered, causing academic scholars to question their path. A teaching is valid only if it effectively leads beings
assumptions that Mahāyāna sūtras are “later texts, toward awakening. To ensure the authenticity of such
written after the Buddha’s lifetime.” It’s rather strange adaptations, the tradition relies on rigorous monastic
to say that the path to full awakening exists, but the discipline, thorough scriptural study, and meditative
teachings on how to realize it “were written after the insight, preserving the Buddha’s wisdom while allowing
Buddha’s lifetime.” the Dharma to evolve compassionately.

Tibetans agree with some Theravāda accounts that
Tsepal: The Buddha gave a wide variety of teachings
the Buddha spent a rainy season teaching seven
depending on the disposition and interests of different
Abhidharma works in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three,
audiences. In addition to definitive teachings that can
where his mother Maya had been reborn. Six of
be taken literally, the Buddha gave provisional teachings
th
those works can be taken literally, while the 7 was
to benefit individuals or groups of people. Although
written later by Moggaliputta Tissa, based on Points
from a Mahāyāna point of view, these teachings cannot
of Controversy (Kathāvatthu) outlined by the Buddha
be taken literally and require interpretation, these
himself.
teachings exhibit skillful means and are still considered
authentic teachings of the Buddha.
How do you balance the principle of skillful means
(upāya) — adapting teachings to help people — with
While afflictions are the same today as in the Buddha’s
staying faithful to the original Buddha’s words?
time, our societies are very different. Skillful means can
be used to reflect the needs and dispositions of modern
Aggacitta: The Buddha himself used a lot of upāya.
Buddhists, applying the Buddha’s teachings on ethical
That’s why his teachings can be so varied and
conduct as the most valid basis for a happy, meaningful
sometimes even appear contradictory because they
life; teachings on impermanence to counter our
were customized to suit the specific needs of his
materialistic consumer tendencies; teachings on duhkha
audience. There is more room for flexibility when
and afflictions to turn our minds away from attachment
teaching the Dhamma, but less in the interpretation
to the pleasures of cyclic existence; great love and
and practice of the Vinaya. As long as one keeps within
compassion to guide our every action, and so forth.
the general principle of the Buddhadhamma which
is rooted in the Four Noble Truths, causality and the To what extent can personal insight or meditation
three characteristics, using upāya to teach the Dhamma experience of later Buddhist teachers validate the
should be encouraged. teaching as the Buddha’s word?

Min Wei: In the Mahāyāna tradition, balancing the
Aggacitta: The core teachings of the Buddha is to
principle of upāya with fidelity to the Buddha’s original
reduce and ultimately put an end to suffering through
teachings is of central importance. Upāya allows
the practice of sīla, samādhi and paññā. Whoever
the Dharma to be adapted to the diverse capacities,
later teachers claiming to teach the Buddhadhamma
historical contexts, and cultural backgrounds of
should embody these basic elements themselves. Their
sentient beings, ensuring its ongoing relevance and
followers too should reap the benefits of reduced mind-
transformative power. However, genuine applications
rooted suffering and improved moral integrity.
of upāya must always reflect the Buddha’s core