Page 187 - Environment: The Science Behind the Stories

When governments take action to force industries to such as the United States, each person has a political voice and
protect water quality or to reimburse residents for damage, can make a difference. However, money often wields influ-
they internalize costs. The costs are paid by the companies, ence over policymakers, and some people and organizations
which add them to the price of their products and pass them wield more influence than others.
on to consumers. Higher market prices, in turn, may reduce
demand for the products, and consumers may instead favor Vested interests People, organizations, industries, or cor-
less-expensive products whose production imposes fewer porations that stand to gain financially from a particular change
costs on society. in policy are said to have a vested interest in the change.
These goals of environmental policy—to protect resources Because their support for the policy is based on personal ben-
against the tragedy of the commons and to promote fairness efit rather than societal benefit, desirable public policy rarely
by eliminating free riders and addressing external costs—are emerges as a result. Unfortunately, those people, organizations,
reflected in today’s diversity of approaches to environmental industries, and corporations with vested interests are often the
policy. As an example, the polluter-pays principle specifies ones that exert the most influence over policymakers through
that a party responsible for pollution should be held responsi- lobbying, campaign contributions, and the revolving door.
ble for covering the costs of its impacts. This principle helps
protect resources such as clean water and air, promotes just Lobbying Anyone who spends time or money trying to
treatment of all parties, and helps shift external costs into the influence an elected official’s decisions is engaged in lobbying.
market prices of goods and services. Although anyone can lobby, it is far more difficult for an
ordinary citizen than for the full-time professional lobbyists
employed by the many businesses and organizations seeking
Many factors hinder environmental policy a voice in politics. Environmental advocacy organizations

If the goals of environmental policy are so noble, why is it are not the most influential of lobbying groups. Indeed, the
that environmental laws and regulations are often challenged American Petroleum Institute spends nearly as much on lob-
and that policymakers frequently ignore or reject the ideas of bying as the entire budgets of the top five U.S. environmental
environmental advocates? advocacy groups combined. The shale gas industry has spent
Most environmental policy has come in the form of many millions of dollars lobbying federal, state, and local
regulations handed down from government. Businesses and policymakers, and has also given these decision makers many
individuals sometimes view regulations as overly restrictive, millions in contributions toward their election campaigns.
bureaucratic, or costly. For instance, many landowners fear
that zoning regulations (p. 361) or protections for endangered Campaign contributions Supporting a candidate’s elec-
species (p. 314) will restrict how they can use their land. tion efforts with money is another way to make one’s voice
Developers complain of time and money lost to bureaucracy heard. Environmental policy often regulates the activities of
in obtaining permits; reviews by government agencies; sur- corporations and industries, so they have a strong vested interest
veys for endangered species; and required environmental con- in shaping it. Corporations and industries may not legally make
trols, monitoring, and mitigation. In the eyes of such property direct campaign contributions, but they are allowed to establish
owners and businesspeople, environmental regulation often political action committees (PACs), which raise money to help
means inconvenience and economic cost. candidates win elections, in hope of gaining access to those
Another hurdle for environmental policy stems from the individuals once they are elected. In the wake of the controver-
nature of environmental problems, which often develop gradu- sial U.S. Supreme Court decision in the case Citizens United v.
ally. The degradation of ecosystems and public health caused Federal Election Commission in 2010, corporations and unions
by human impact on the environment are long-term processes. are now also allowed to purchase political ads supporting or
In contrast, human behavior is geared toward addressing short- opposing candidates. As a result, corporations and unions can
term needs, and this is reflected in our social institutions. Busi- now exert more political influence than in the past.
nesses usually opt for short-term economic gain over long-term
concerns. The news media have a short attention span based on The revolving door Some individuals employed in
the daily news cycle, so new and sudden events are given more industry gain political influence when they take jobs with the
coverage than slowly developing long-term trends. Politicians government agencies responsible for regulating their indus-
often act out of short-term interest because they depend on re- tries. Conversely, businesses often hire former government
election every few years. For all these reasons, environmental officials who had regulated their industries. This movement
policy goals that seem admirable and that attract wide public of individuals between government and the private sector is
support may end up being obstructed. known as the revolving door.
More broadly, policy in general can be held up for a vari- As an example, after Pennsylvania regulators tried to
ety of reasons—even if it is rational policy favored by a major- strengthen oversight of wastewater from gas drilling, three of
ity of people. Translating any given policy idea into reality is the regulators left their government posts and went to work
long, hard work. The checks and balances in a constitutional for the gas industry. As another example, before becoming
democracy seek to ensure that new policy is implemented only U.S. vice president, Dick Cheney was chairman and CEO of
after it has gone through extensive review and discussion. In Halliburton, a leading energy services company that helped
general this is a very good thing, but less desirable factors can to pioneer hydraulic fracturing. After taking office in 2001,
186 also hinder the implementation of good policy. In democracies Cheney convened an energy task force that met 40 times with

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