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expressions. Linguistic diversity is reflected not only in linguistic features such as dialect,
or lingua franca but also relates to non-linguistic factors such as history, society, culture,
economics, and politics which are interrelated in North Maluku.
This section discusses three things that show the relationship between languages and
non-linguistic factors. The three things are: (1) the relationship between Gamkonora and
Waioli which can be seen in the narrative origin of both ethnic groups and in turn can refer
to the language relatedness. (2) the linkage between ethnic groups and the Tiana language
in West Halmahera with Galela in North Halmahera. This section throws light on the issue
of origin claims which are not related to the relatedness of languages, and (3) historical
factors that have led to the use of Ternate and Ternate Malay as lingua francas throughout
North Maluku and as far as Papua.

Gamkonora (Gamsungi dialect) and Waioli: Two Languages, Two Ethnic
Groups with One Origin Story
Gamsungi village, one of the four Gamkonora villages, is located just below Mt. Gamkonora
a volcano which is active today. This volcano has erupted several times. In 1980, the regency
head provided land in Tosora (Northern Tosoa) for Gamsungi people who were threatened
by volcanic eruptions. 90% of Gamsungi villagers obtained land without charge, claimed
as customary land, and located in between the Sasur river shaft in Tosoa. Coconut and
nutmeg were the dominant crops planted there. Tosoa is a Waioli speaking region. What is
puzzling is why the Gamsungi people got land in Tosoa approved by the indigenous elders
of Tosoa. There are three possibilities of the relationship of the two speakers which can be
expressed linguistically and be revealed from the sources of history and mythology of the
origins of the two ethnolinguistic communities.
First, a study of 223 basic words (Kleden-Probonegoro, 2013b: 30-32) showed that the
basic vocabulary Gamkonora language, especially that spoken in Gamsungi village, was
75% the same as the vocabulary of Waioli (in Bataka village) while the degree of relatedness
between Gamkonora languages, in three other villages and the Waioli language, only
reached 70%. It means that the Gamkonora speakers in Gamsungi village have a specially
close relation with Waioli.
Second, the relationship between the speakers of Gamkonora language in Gamsungi
village and Waioli speakers is also affected by non-linguistic aspects. Fraassen (1980: 97)
described the two groups who had lived in Ake Lamo river basin since the 16th century or
perhaps since the 15th century namely the group of Waioli speakers settled at the top of

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