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188 Hand-Rearing Birds

improved (see “Hydration” in Chapter 18). Consult with your veterinarian when diarrhea, solid
light brown, sweet, or sour smelling feces are noted.

Mosquito-borne­Diseases

Flamingos are susceptible to several common mosquito‐borne diseases, such as avian malaria,
avian pox, and West Nile virus (Shannon 2007). Juvenile flamingos at many zoos are vaccinated
against West Nile virus. Caregivers raising birds released into wild habitats should seek approval
and coordinate prophylactic treatments with governing agencies from the in situ country/region.

Imprinting

Flamingos easily and willingly follow caretakers around enclosures or out of enclosures while
exercising. Many zoos currently imprint and habituate flamingos as animal ambassadors and flag-
ship species for habitat conservation and education. Birds reared in captivity will pair up and breed
at 3–4 years of age. SWC’s ambassador flock of 25 birds build mounds, lay eggs, and rear chicks
despite participating in daily guest interactions. Incubating females stay at the nest while the
remaining colony leaves the exhibit to interact with park guests. The males from breeding pairs
defended the nest site and successfully reared chicks despite frequent contact with people and nest
intervention. The results show that habituated flamingos will display normal breeding behaviors
and reproduce once mature.
Birds reared without the additional handling and interaction required to raise ambassadors
rarely truly imprint on people when reared within a “crèche” or a small group of birds, but will
habituate to being hand‐fed during their dependent period. Flamingos focus on feeding and bick-
ering with conspecifics when talking and unnecessary handling is reduced. Chicks reared for
release to the wild have been reared in this manner and even seemingly human‐imprinted birds
will integrate into the colony as they wean.

­ Diet

The sire and dam both produce crop milk that is fed to the chick during the rearing period.
Most zoos feed modifications of a pellet‐based diet with fish, krill, and egg or, less commonly,
a simpler egg‐based diet when hand‐feeding chicks (Shannon 2007). The diets strive to meet
the nutritional needs of the growing chicks. The SWC diet in Table 11.1 is a pellet‐based diet.
Modifications made over a 20‐year period have resulted in proven success and changes made
to the recommended diet may not yield the same hand‐rearing results. Leg development issues
with use of the egg‐based diet were reported by three facilities in 2018. It is not clear whether
the issues were diet‐related or due to other causes but similar issues have not been reported
with the pellet‐based diet. Once a preferred diet is chosen for hand‐rearing, talk with others
who have used the diet to inquire about hand‐rearing challenges and avoid duplication of
issues. Hand‐rearing techniques and diets continue to evolve and professionals usually share
techniques willingly.
Blend ingredients well (about 60 seconds). Strain the formula into a bottle using a fine mesh
strainer and a funnel. Label the bottle with the date and time. Store refrigerated formula for up to
24 hours or freeze small portions for up to 30 days. Warm a portion of chick formula by floating a