Page 20 - Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, 8th Edition

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology / 5

surface of the water is in a horizontal plane limbs (especially distal limbs), an additional
When referring to structures in the
in relation to the cow.
VetBooks.ir other descriptive terms are valuable in pair of directional terms is often utilized.
In addition to the planes of reference,
Using a plane that bisects the limb on its
defining an area we wish to discuss. center axis into medial and lateral halves,
Medial is an adjective meaning close to structures that are closer to that center axis
or toward the median plane. The heart is are described as being axial, while those
medial to the lungs; it is closer to the median that are further away (closer to either the
plane than are the lungs. The chestnut is on medial or lateral sides) are said to be more
the medial aspect (inside) of a horse’s limb; it abaxial.
is on the side closest to the median plane. The suffix ‐ad is used to form an adverb
Lateral is the antonym of medial; it from any of the above‐named directional
means away from the median plane. The terms, indicating movement in the direction
ribs are lateral to the lungs, that is, farther of or toward, as in dorsad, ventrad,
from the median plane. caudad, and craniad, that is, respectively,
Dorsal means toward or beyond the toward the dorsum, toward the belly, toward
backbone or vertebral column. The kidneys the tail, and toward the head. For example,
are dorsal to the intestines; they are closer to the superficial digital flexor tendon inserts
the vertebral column. Dorsum is the noun on the distal limb (the adjective distal
referring to the dorsal portion or back. describes noun limb), but it passes distad as
A saddle is placed on the dorsum of a horse. it runs along the palmar aspect of the manus
Ventral means away from the vertebral (the adverb distad describes the verb passes).
column or toward the midabdominal wall. Prone refers to a position in which the
The udder lies along the ventral part of the dorsal aspect of the body or any extremity
body of a cow, the part of the body farthest is uppermost. Pronation refers to the act
from the vertebral column. of turning toward a prone position.
Deep and internal indicate proximity Supine refers to the position in which
to the center of an anatomical structure. the ventral aspect of the body or palmar or
The humerus (arm bone) is deep in relation plantar aspect of an extremity is uppermost.
to all other structures in the arm. Supination refers to the act of turning
Superficial and external refer to prox- toward a supine position.
imity to the surface of the body. Hair is The term median is often confused with
superficial to all other structures of the body. medial. Both words are used as adjectives
Proximal means relatively close to a given when describing anatomical structures.
part, usually the vertebral column, body, or Median means on the midline (as in the
center of gravity. Proximal is generally used median plane, or the median artery).
in reference to an extremity or limb. The Medial is subtly different, as it means
carpus or knee is proximal to the foot. toward the midline and is a term of rela-
Distal means farther from the vertebral tivity (as it implies that there is a lateral).
column, and like proximal, it is generally
used in reference to portions of an extrem-
ity. The hoof is distal to the carpus or knee. Microscopic Anatomy: Animal
In describing the thoracic limb (fore- Cells and Tissues
limb) distal to (below) the carpus, palmar
refers to the flexor or caudal surface. All living things, both plants and animals,
Dorsal is used in this region to refer to the are constructed of small units called cells.
opposite (cranial) side. In describing the The simplest animals, such as ameba,
pelvic limb (hindlimb) distal to the hock, consist of a single cell that is capable of
plantar refers to the caudal surface, and performing all functions commonly asso-
dorsal here, too, refers to the side directly ciated with life. These functions include
opposite (the cranial side). growth (increase in size), metabolism