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Notes to Pages 369–386 453

15. Barber and Lichtman (1999), Chechik, Meilijson and Ruppin (1998), Hua and
Smith (2004), Huttenlocher, de Courten, Garey and van der Loos (1982) and
Purves and Lichtman (1980).
16. Zuckerman and Cohen (1964).
17. For a review of this concept from a linguistic point of view, see Carnie (2008).
The arguments for why and how this concept applies to the language of thought
were reviewed by Fodor (1976) and Fodor and Pylyshyn (1988). Briefly put, “the
constituency relation is a part/whole relation: If C is a constituent of C*, then a
token of C is a part of every token of C*” (Fodor, 1997, p. 111).
18. See references in Chapter 4, Notes 19 and 21.
19. Gaskell (2007), Graesser, Gernsbacher and Goldman (2003) and Traxler and
Gernsbacher (2006).
20. Ohlsson (2008a) and Proctor and Dutta (1995).
21. Chi and Ohlsson (2005).
22. The number 10 million is mentioned on the Web site of the Los Alamos National
Laboratory, at http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/6.html. They in turn refer to the
online source CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. The exact number does
not matter for present purposes, only its order of magnitude.
23. Liebherr and McHugh (2003).
24. Thorndike (1932): “Punishments often but not always tend to shift from [the con-
nections that lead to them] to something else. … They weaken the connection
which produced them, when they do weaken it, by strengthening some compet-
ing connection” (p. 277).
25. Flight and vision are the two classical challenges of this sort. For the two-stage
theory of the evolution of flight in birds, see Dial (2003) and Sumida and Brochut
(2000). For a similarly structured theory of flight in insects, see Kingsolver and
Koehl (1985). For a discussion of the evolution of vision, see Gregory (2008).
Budd (2006, especially pp. 618–619) and Gregory (2008, especially p. 361) pro-
pose general principles, including functional shifts and multiple stages with dif-
ferent selective pressures, for the evolution of complex adaptations.
26. The term “future shock” was introduced by Alvin Tofffler in the book with that
title (Toffler, 1970). His thesis was that rapid change imposes a strain on the
human mind. Bertman (1998) followed up on this thesis 25 years later. The pre-
dicted collapse of the human psyche due to too much change appears not to be
forthcoming.
27. See Mansfield, Busse and Krepelka (1978) and Scott, Leritz and Mumford (2004).
The evidence is not much stronger for training programs that claim to raise a
person’s intelligence as measured by IQ-tests (Perkins, 1995b).
28. Picasso is often quoted as saying, “I don’t search, I find.” What he said was, “In my
opinion to search means nothing in painting. To find, is the thing.” The comment,
presumably spoken in either French or Spanish, was recorded by Marius de Zayas,
translated into English and published in an article titled “Picasso Speaks” in the
New York magazine The Arts, May 1923. (Reprinted in Ashton, 1972, pp. 3–6.)
29. Louis Pasteur, in his inaugural lecture as professor and dean, University of
Lille, Douai, France, December 7, 1854. English translation in Peterson (1954,
pp. 469–474).