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Culture and Self 425

line, frequently resulting in different behavior toward ingroup In contrast, when the schema for self is interdependent with
and outgroup members (see Heine, 2008). others and this schema organizes agency, people will have a
It is important to note that independence entails a particular sense of themselves as part of encompassing social relation-
form of sociality or of interdependence itself—one in which ships. People are likely to reference others, and to understand
relationships are understood as voluntary and as a matter of their individual actions as contingent on or organized by the
choice. Likewise, interdependence can also promote certain actions of others and their relations with these others. Actions
types of independence in which personal selves are defined rooted in this schema will have different meanings and conse-
by identification with or rebellion against significant others quences than actions rooted in a independent schema. Thus, a
in a relationship. Although interdependence ensures that people lack of speech does not imply a lack of thinking, performing well
are likely to be responsive to others, this does not imply har- on a task selected by one’s mother does not imply a preference
mony or affection among the people engaged in interdependent for having choices usurped or a lack of self-efficacy, and attend-
relationships (Kitayama et al., 2007). ing to one’s shortcomings does not imply low self-esteem or
depression (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999; Kim, 2002; Markus
et al., 2006). Such tendencies instead can reflect an acknowl-
How Do Independence and Interdependence
edgement of one’s role or obligations in a particular situation
Shape Psychological Functioning?
and an awareness of the significant others with whom one is
The distinction between independence and interdependence as interdependent and who define the self. Similarly, fostering
foundational schemas for the self has proved to be a powerful good relations (Holloway et al., 2009), having concerns about
heuristic for demonstrating how sociocultural contexts can one’s enemies (Adams, 2005), experiencing a heightened sensi-
shape self-functioning and psychological functioning (for tivity to others’ evaluations (Nisbett, 1993), having greater con-
detailed reviews, see A. Fiske et al., 1998; Heine, 2008; cern for others’ actions than for thoughts (A.B. Cohen & Rozin,
Kitayama & Cohen, 2007). Returning to the selection of find- 2001), and exhibiting relatively little concern with getting to
ings described in the opening paragraphs of this article, all of choose (Snibbe & Markus, 2005) are also consistent with a sense
the differences cited can be explained in some important part of one’s self as being related to others and with an awareness of
by the independent and interdependent patterns of sociality. the relatively larger role of others in influencing who you are and
Across all of these examples, the ideas and/or practices in one what you should be doing. Moreover, even the same region of
setting place relatively more emphasis on the attributes of the the brain is activated by both significant others (mother) and the
individual and their expression as the form of agency, whereas self for people in Chinese contexts (Zhu et al., 2007), which
the ideas and practices of the comparison setting place rela- serves as yet another type of evidence for the psychological real-
tively more emphasis on relationships and social responsive- ity of this interdependent sense of agency.
ness and the maintenance of these relationships as the form Together these findings, and hundreds more like them,
of agency. powerfully demonstrate that independence and interdepen-
When the schema for self is independent from others and dence have significant psychological consequences—for
this schema organizes agency, people will have a sense of cognition, emotion, motivation, morality, relationships, inter-
themselves as separate and will be relatively likely to focus group processes, health, and well-being—and the field’s view
on, reference, and express their own thoughts, feeling, and of these concepts is broadening. For example, viewing aspects
goals. For example, people in North American settings are of the world and one’s self as distinct objects and attributes that
likely to speak out and emphasize their good qualities, are separate from their contexts (e.g., Masuda et al., 2005), per-
because in doing so they can express their defining prefer- ceiving one’s self to be consistent across situations (e.g., Suh,
ences or attributes (Kim, 2002). Highlighting one’s successes 2002), and experiencing well-being in the pursuit of fun and
after a performance functions similarly by drawing attention enjoyment (e.g., Oishi & Diener, 2001) derive from and con-
to one’s positive, defining attributes (Markus et al., 2006). tribute to a sense of independence. Alternatively, paying atten-
In addition, people in North American settings decide tion to the context, others, role obligations, and duties; taking
whether or not to help someone based on their preferences, the other’s perspective; and cultivating feelings of balance or
and normatively good actions follow from the expression of calm in relations with others derive from and serve to further
these preferences (Miller & Bersoff, 1998). Similarly, choice realize a sense of interdependence (e.g., D. Cohen &
enhances the performance of middle-class Americans, and Hoshino-Browne, 2005; Mesquita, 2001; Tsai, Louie, Chen,
they seek out and construct their actions in terms of choice & Uchida, 2007).
because choice allows the expression of these preferences
and thus serves to affirm the self (Iyengar & Lepper, 1999;
Snibbe & Markus, 2005). Lastly, individual achievement and What Are the Continuing Challenges
success are associated with happiness in independent settings and Controversies in the Study of Culture
because achievement signals positive internal attributes and Self?
(Kitayama et al., 2009). In all cases, these actions reflect set-
tings that foster the sense that the individual is the source of We now know considerably more about cultural variation in
thought, feeling, and action. the self and, further, have gained numerous insights into the

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