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demonstrate greater ability to identify misleading information outside the classroom
11 .

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
The findings of this study can be interpreted through multiple theoretical and
empirical lenses, particularly within the frameworks of constructivist learning theory,
critical literacy, media education, and cognitive psychology. The integration of
reflective and self-assessment games into English language pedagogy
demonstrates a multidimensional impact on learners’ ability to critically engage with
disinformation, extending beyond linguistic development to encompass higher-
order thinking skills and digital competence.
From a constructivist perspective, learning is understood as an ակտիվ, learner-
centered process in which individuals construct knowledge through interaction with
content, context, and peers. Reflective and self-assessment games embody this
principle by transforming learners from passive recipients of information into active
participants in meaning-making processes. As Lev Vygotsky emphasized, cognitive
development is deeply rooted in social interaction and mediated learning
experiences. In this regard, game-based activities provide a dynamic environment
where learners collaboratively analyze, question, and reinterpret information,
particularly in relation to disinformation scenarios .
12
The role of metacognition emerges as a central theme in the analysis.
Reflective games are particularly effective in fostering metacognitive awareness,
which refers to the ability to think about one’s own thinking processes. According to
Daniel Kahneman, human cognition operates through two systems: intuitive (fast)
and analytical (slow) thinking. Disinformation often exploits the intuitive system by
triggering emotional responses and cognitive biases. Reflective games counteract
this tendency by encouraging learners to pause, reflect, and engage in analytical
reasoning. For instance, when students are asked to justify their evaluation of a news
article within a game, they activate deeper cognitive processes that enhance their
ability to detect inconsistencies, logical fallacies, and manipulative language.
Furthermore, the incorporation of self-assessment mechanisms aligns with
theories of self-regulated learning. Self-assessment games require learners to
evaluate their own performance against predefined criteria, thereby promoting
autonomy and responsibility. Research by Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick highlights that
effective self-assessment enhances feedback literacy and supports continuous
improvement. In the context of disinformation, this means that learners become
more adept at identifying their own misconceptions and biases. They learn not only
to critique external information but also to reflect on their internal cognitive
processes, which is essential for developing устойчивые критические навыки.
Critical literacy theory provides another important framework for
understanding the findings. As articulated by Allan Luke, critical literacy involves the
ability to analyze texts in relation to power structures, ideological positioning, and
socio-political contexts. Disinformation is inherently tied to these dimensions, as it
often serves specific agendas and manipulates narratives to influence public opinion.
Reflective and self-assessment games create opportunities for learners to interrogate

11 . Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., & Cook, J. (2017). Beyond misinformation. Journal of Applied Research in 129
Memory and Cognition, 6(4), pp. 353–369.
12 Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society. Harvard University Press, pp. 86–91.

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