Page 747 - Geosystems An Introduction to Physical Geography 4th Canadian Edition

Index I-13
minerals and, 355
pollution, 73, 77, 80, 82–83, 162 volcanoes and hot spots, 144, 371
Summer solstice, 55–59
Sun, 44–45, 48, 95. See also Solar energy Sunrise and sunset, 52
Sunspots, 46, 319
Supereon, 348–349
Superposed stream, 458
Superposition, principle of, 348 Supraglacial debris, 537
Supraglacial lakes, 560
Surface barometric pressures, 154
Surface creep, 518
Surface runoff, 246–251, 254
Surface tension, 182
Surface water, 243–244, 253–256
Surface winds, 152
Suspended load, streams, 463 Sustainability, 10, 108–109, 181, 262–263,
372–373, 662–665 Swamps, 473, 475, 515–516
Symbiotic relationships, 513, 620 Synclinal ridge, 390–391 Syncline, 390–392
Synoptic analysis, 217
System feedback, 12–13 Systems theory, 11–14
T
Tablelands, low and high, 385–386 Taiga, 293
Tailing ponds, 424
Taku, 162
Talik, 551
Talus slope, 442–443, 444, 544, 546
Tarns, 544, 546
Tectonic cycle. See Plate tectonics
Tectonic earthquakes, defined, 402. See also
Earthquakes Tectonic uplift, 472
Temperate rain forest, 275–276, 648–650, 657–658
Temperature. See also Climate; Climate change; Terrestrial biomes; Weather
air masses and, 208–209
air temperature, 121
albedo and, 121
altitude and elevation, effect of, 122–123 atmosphere zones, 69–71
atmospheric lifting mechanisms, 209–216 atmospheric stability, 190–194 carbon-climate feedback, 321–323 climate models and forecasts, 335–337 cloud cover, effect of, 123–124
cold and warm fronts, 212–216 coral bleaching and, 515
degree days and, 303
dew-point, 187–188 Earth-atmosphere energy balance,
100–101, 103–104, 113
Earth’s climate system, 278–279
Earth’s core and mantle, 351
Earth’s temperature patterns, 21, 122, 123,
130–134
ecosystems, effect on, 621–622 environmental lapse rates, 86 feedback loops, climate and, 13 fog, formation and types, 197–199 frost weathering, 430–431 greenhouse effect, 97–101, 307 heat and, 93, 136–139
Human Denominator, 139 humidity and, 140, 201–202 ice-core data, 315
inversion of, 81, 84, 86
land surface temperature (LST), 121, 122 land-water heating differences, 124–129 latent heat, 184–186
local wind patterns, 162–163, 164 measurement of, 48, 60, 119–120, 122 metamorphic processes, 360–361, 362 overview of, 118–119
Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), 170 pollution and, 81
radiation and, 60
radioactive forcing and, 334
rain shadow and, 237
recent trends in, 134–139
record extremes, 119, 122, 297
of sun, 48
surface energy budget, simplified, 104–107 tropical cyclones, 226–235
urban heat islands, 107–111
water-vapour feedback system, 321
wind chill, 118–119
Tension, crust deformation, 390–394, 395, 396 Terminal moraines, 547, 548
Terra, 32
Terranes, 389
Terrestrial biomes
arctic and alpine tundra, 661–662 biogeographic divisions, 642–644, 645, 646 boreal and montane forests, 655–657 conservation efforts, 662–665
desert biomes, 659–661
global map and summary table of, 648–650 invasive species, 641, 644, 646–647 Mediterranean scrubland, 658–659 midlatitude broadleaf and mixed forest,
654–655
temperate rain forest, 657–658 tropical rain forest, 647–653 tropical savanna, 651, 654 tropical seasonal forest and scrub,
651, 654
Tertiary circulation, atmosphere, 151, 153,
162–163, 164
Tertiary Period, 349, 396, 400
Tethys Sea, 366
Thalweg, 469
Tharp, Marie, 382
Thermal equator, 131
Thermal infrared energy, 92
Thermal springs, 411
Thermistors, 120
Thermocline, 168
Thermocline transition zone, 494 Thermohaline circulation, 165–168 Thermokarst landscapes, 552 Thermometers, 120, 122
Thermopause, 49–50, 69–71, 70 Thermosphere, 67, 69–71, 70
Thomson, William, 120
Thorium (Th) isotopes, 350
Thornthwaite, Charles W., 247, 277 Thornthwaite water budget calculation, 270 Three Gorges Dam, 254–255
Threshold, equilibrium and, 13–14
Thrust fault, 393–394
Thunder, defined, 223
Thunderheads, 197
Thunderstorms, 206, 221–225. See also
Weather Tides
electrical energy from, 500–501 Tidewater glacier, 537–538
Till, 547
Till plains, 547–549
Tiltmeters, 408
Time, geologic, 348–350 Time, longitude and, 23–25 Tipping point, 13–14
Tombolo, 508, 509
Tonga Trench, 366
Topography, 384–386, 573
Topsoil, 574
Tornadoes, 207, 225–228, 236 Torricelli, Evangelista, 144
Tower karst, 437, 438
Traction, 464
Trade winds, 153, 155, 156–157, 164 Transform fault, 368–369, 411 Transition zones, climate, 277 Translational slides, 442
Translocation, 574
Transmission, 92
Transparency, 124–129
Transpiration, 244–246, 279, 608–609 Transportation, 358, 424–428, 516–525,
536–538 Travertine, 360, 378 Tree rings, 316–317
Trellis drainage, 458
Triassic Period, 349
Tributary glacier, 542
Triple junction, 394, 395
Tristan da Cunha, 43, 143, 641
Trophic relationships, 613, 616–619 Tropical air masses (T), 208–209
Tropical climates, 277, 280–285, 297–300 Tropical cyclones, 226–235
Tropical depression, 228, 232–233 Tropical disturbance, 228
Tropical rain forest, -280–283, 647–653 Tropical savanna, 280–281, 283–285,
648–650, 651, 654
Tropical seasonal forest and scrub, 648–650,
651, 654
Tropical storms, 188–189, 228, 232–233 Tropical year, 53
Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn
air pressure, 155
atmospheric circulation, 156–157 climate, 282
energy budget, 102–103
latitude, 21–22
seasonal changes, 55–59
subsolar point, 43, 50 temperature and, 122, 123
Tropopause, 70, 71
Troposphere, 67, 70, 71, 98–103 Troughs, 394, 395
True shape, 27–28
Tsunami, 5, 144, 406–407, 409, 505–507 Tufa towers, 64
Tundra
arctic and alpine biomes, 661–662 climate, 280–281, 295
Eurasian Arctic tundra, 302 warming of, 296, 307
Turbulent flow, 460
Twilight, 55–59
Typhoons, 103, 147, 164, 226–235
U
Ultramafic rocks, 357, 434
Ultraviolet (UV) rays, 48, 71, 72–75, 92 Unconfined aquifer, 258–259, 258–260 Undercut bank, 468–469 Uniformitarianism, 348
United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea, 3–4 Convention to Combat Desertification, 571 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), 5, 135, 324, 325,
331–332, 334–335, 605
Kyoto Protocol, 337–338
World Water Assessment Program, 242