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Plate 9.2 Zhu Quan 朱權 (c. 1378–1448),
Wondrous and Secret Notation (Shenqi
mipu 神奇秘譜), reprint of the 1425
Hongxi edition (Beijing, 1956). Pages
showing the preface for Qiuhong

known Yuan dramatists; a listing of 110 works by nameless Early Ming China needed such categories and rules
librettists, and 41 by male and professional entertainers because it experienced drastic and rapid changes in
(changfu 娼夫); biographical notes on 36 master singers who language, drama and other expressive and regional
performed as elite artists and not as commercial practices. Since Jin and Yuan times, many northern Chinese
entertainers, and whose performance Zhu had witnessed; a had migrated to the south, singing northern arias (beiqu 北曲)
musical-theoretical discussion of the five classes of relative in their newly adopted homes. Socially and politically
pitches, the twelve standard pitches and eleven musical valorised as a genre of sophisticated and superior
mode-scales; and a series of prescriptions on singing performing arts, northern arias flourished in the south and
practices. were sung by both northerners and southerners. Those who
Much of the information discussed in the seven texts or were neither native nor experienced speakers of northern
reports is taken from pre-existing sources, which scholars Chinese dialects needed help to compose and perform
have now identified as Zhong Sicheng’s 鍾嗣成 (fl. 1320s) northern arias. It is this need that prompted the writing and
Luguipu 錄鬼譜 (A Registry of Deceased Masters) and Zhi An’s publication of tutorials and theoretical guides on composing
芝庵 Changlun 唱論 (A Discussion on Singing Practices; prior to and performing theatrical arias, such as Zhou Deqing’s 周德清
1341). Some traditional arguments preserved in Taihe Zhongyuan yinyun 中原音韵 (Phonology of the Central Plains),
zhengyinpu are idiosyncratically adjusted by Zhu Quan to compiled around 1324. A dictionary of 5,866 words divided
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underscore the use of drama and theatrical performance as into 19 groups of rhymes, Zhou’s reference work prescribes
a means of governance and self-cultivation. For example, how the words can be used in beiqu compositions and
arguments that valorise honourable commoner performers performances. However, it presents few concrete examples of
(liangjia 良家), at the expense of Buddhists and professional how the words can be composed and performed to fit qupai
and commoner entertainers, expose the prince’s structures.
authoritative and opinionated personality. The task of producing a comprehensive and practical
Zhu Quan compiled Taihe zhengyinpu to transform formulary on the fixed northern aria tunes fell to Zhu Quan
ideologically dramatic theories and practices of his time; as – or rather he was the first to grasp the need for such a
such, it attests to the prince’s historical agency and creative reference work. The task and the materials needed to
context. Born and raised in Nanjing in the south, the prince complete the task, however, were beyond the scope of any
had spent his late boyhood and early manhood travelling one person to manage single-handedly. Linguistic words and
and fighting many battles in northern China. He thus had tones are communal properties and codes that no individual
the opportunities to become knowledgeable about the could create by themselves. Being a politically marginalised,
language of both northern and southern dialects. Being a ideologically driven, scholarly and artistically gifted prince,
sensitive dramatist and musical performer, he realised how Zhu Quan became the historical player who had the ability
effective composition and performance of dramatic lyrics and resources to tackle the task. As a princely and musical
depended on the correct matching of tune and melodic scholar, he was able to collect and organise the linguistic-
structures with the linguistic tones of spoken or sung words oral-aural data needed to produce an instructive and
in the lyrics. Exercising his creative and systematising urges, meaningful formulary.
he developed categories and rules to help composers, His collection, selection and classification of northern
performers and audience to engage expressively with aria fixed tunes according to scale-modes, and his
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theatrical singing of arias. annotation of the linguistic attributes of words in the lyrics of

90 | Ming China: Courts and Contacts 1400–1450