Page 86 - Ming_China_Courts_and_Contacts_1400_1450 Craig lunas

Empress Hu 胡 (d. 1443), first empress of the Xuande Ming empresses also once existed. There is one hanging scroll
emperor, was deposed on the grounds that she did not bear portrait of Empress Ma (d. 1382), wife of Hongwu, in the same
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any sons, only one daughter. Although not directly related collection, but it was added to the collection between 1744 and 1815.
See Zhang Naiwei 1990, 395–400. Portraits of Empresses Ma and
to empresses, it is important to remember that the sacrifice Xu that matched the hanging scroll portraits of their husbands, the
of childless consorts at the death of the emperor was Hongwu and Yongle emperors, are mentioned in Tan Qian 2006,
practised during this period. This cruel custom of 103.
immolation was not abolished until the Tianshun 天順 13 DMHD, juan 60.37a–b.
(r. 1457–64) reign in 1464. Patrilineality was an embedded 14 DMHD, juan 60.37b.
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15 Emperors’ costumes are recorded in Lin Yin 1987, juan 5 under sifu
part of Chinese history and Ming empresses were not unique 司服, 221–4; empresses’ costume is in juan 2 under nei sifu 內司服,
in facing the challenges it presented. Further research is 81–2. Also discussed in Chen Gaohua and Xu Jijun 2002, 89–90.
needed to understand the specific ways that Ming empresses 16 Zhou Xun and Gao Chunming 1988, 93.
and other imperial women of the period negotiated their 17 Zhou Xun and Gao Chunming 1988, 92–9.
18 Tuotuo c. 1345, juan 151.
position, how they engaged in the shaping of empress-ship, 19 Tuotuo c. 1345, juan 151.
identity and imperial authority, and how this developed over 20 For an example of a Liao dynasty crown worn by a princess, see
time, so that we can begin to fill a significant gap in our Shen Hsueh-man 2006, 102–3.
understanding of this important group of makers and 21 Xu Wenyao 2013, 80.
performers of Ming court culture. 58 22 Lee Hui-shu 2010, 59.
23 Liu Heping 2003, 135–6.
Lastly, if the crowns of Ming empresses can be more aptly 24 Lee Hui-shu 2010, 59.
described as ‘dragon crowns’, then where did the notion of 25 Little 2000, 276–7.
the ‘phoenix crown’ to denote an empress’ headdress come 26 Tuotuo 1975, juan 43, 978.
from? Preliminary evidence suggests that this term was in 27 See Chapter 27 by Craig Clunas in this volume.
28 For instance Robinson 2008.
fact a later, Qing dynasty, development. Qinding Da Qing 29 Watt 2010, 80–1; Jia 2005.
huidian 欽定大清會典 (Imperially Sponsored Collected Statutes of 30 I am grateful to Professor Jessica Rawson for pointing this out to
the Great Qing) states that Qing empresses’ first-rank me.
ceremonial costume included a robe embroidered with 31 Jia Xizeng 2005, 221–2.
five-clawed dragons and a headdress embellished with gold 32 This is consistent with the description of an empress’ crown in Jin
shi. See Tuotuo 1975, 978.
filigree phoenixes. Lower-ranked consorts were entitled to 33 For examples of Silla crowns, see Lee Soyoung and Leidy 2014,
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a headdress with fewer phoenixes, and princesses to one with 50–3.
pheasants. They wore robes embroidered with dragons, 34 Wang Qi 1988, under niaoshou 鳥獸, nos 2 and 3.
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but these were called mang 蟒 rather than long 龍 to 35 Hargett 1989, 238.
36 DMHD, juan 60.47a–50b, 59b–62a.
distinguish their wearer’s rank. Surviving portraits of Qing 37 DMHD, juan 60.32a–34a.
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empresses, where their crowns are decorated with phoenixes 38 DMHD, juan 60.39b–41b, 47a–48b.
but without any dragons, are consistent with these codes. 39 On this tomb, see Hubei sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo and
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The design of headdresses decorated with phoenixes spread Zhongxiang shi bowuguan 2007. The excavated objects are
beyond the court to become the customary headdress of a discussed in Clunas 2013, 139–64, especially Lady Wei 151–64;
Clunas and Harrison-Hall 2014, figs 57, 58.
bride at her wedding. It is most likely through its wider 40 Hsieh Bao Hua 2003, 114.
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distribution that ‘phoenix crown’ became embedded in the 41 DMHD, juan 67.8a.
popular lexicon. 42 DMHD, juan 60.33b, 38b–39b.
43 Clunas and Harrison-Hall 2014, 107. This interpretation of the
phoenix and dragon combination is frequently repeated. For
Notes example, Bartholomew 2006, 55.
1 I am using the translation ‘crown’ for guan 冠 to highlight its 44 Cammann 1952; Lin Yeqiang 2009, 32.
importance as a symbol of the empress’ rank. It functions 45 Sung 2009, 122.
differently from European royal crowns that are tied to the state 46 Kuehn 2011, 210–11.
and inherited. In China, the crown together with other aspects of 47 On Empress Zhang, see Soullière 1987, 350–5.
imperial costume was part of the wearer’s property and was buried 48 MS 1984, 113, 3503.
with them upon their death. There is no crowning ceremony as 49 MS 113, 3512.
such in the coronation (or marriage) of an empress. On the Ming 50 MS 113, 3512.
imperial marriage ceremony, see Hsieh Bao Hua 2003. 51 Birge 2002, 290.
2 On the polygamy of Chinese emperors, see McMahon 2013. 52 Birge 2002, 280; Bernhardt 1999.
3 DMB, 389–90. 53 Birge 2002, 277–9.
4 Hsieh Bao Hua 2003, 101. See also Soullière 1987. 54 MS 113, 3510. For Empress Xu’s biography, see DMB, 566–9.
5 Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan et al. 1990, vol. 1, 205–6. 55 Clunas and Harrison-Hall 2014, 60–1; Soullière 1987.
6 The Wanli emperor had two consorts buried with him, Xiaojing 56 MS 113, 3513.
(d. 1611) and Xiaoduan (1564–1620), both née Wang. Xiaoduan was 57 The end of the practice is recorded in MS 113, 3515–16.
his empress, while Xiaojing was the mother of the future 58 For the author’s attempts to explore this area, see Luk 2016a and
Guangzong and was posthumously interred with him. 2016b. Keith McMahon has recently published a book about
7 Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan et al. 1990, vol. 1, 205. imperial women from the Song to Qing dynasties.
8 Images of two of the crowns are in Zhongguo shehui kexue yuan et 59 Kun 1963, juan 58.
al. 1990, vol. 2, nos 114–16. 60 Kun 1963, juan 58, 1876–85.
9 DMHD, juan 60. 61 Lin Yeqiang 2009, 33–4. Lin explains that mang and long are not
10 Franke 1968, 178. simply differentiated by the number of claws.
11 DMHD, juan 60.32a–39b, images on 60.35a–36b. 62 Many of the portraits of Qing emperors and empresses have been
12 A full set of the portraits is reproduced in black and white in DMB. published, such as in Beiping gugong bowuyuan 1931.
According to textual sources, full-length hanging scroll portraits of 63 Xu Wenyao 2013, 80.

76 | Ming China: Courts and Contacts 1400–1450