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situation, the tough negotiator is free to accept all of this fairness and cooperation
without giving anything in return. 193

Considerable difference exists in the approach of people working in groups
with cooperative goals and those in groups with competitive goals. This

situation has been addressed by D. Tjosvold: In cooperation, people realize
that they are successful when others succeed and are oriented toward aiding each
other to perform effectively. They encourage each other because they understand
the other’s priorities help them to be successful. Compatible goals promote trust.
People expect help and assistance from others and are confident that they can rely
on others; it is, after all, in others’ self-interests to help. Expecting to get and give
assistance, they accurately disclose their intentions and feelings, offer ideas and
resources, and request aid. They are able to work out arrangements of exchange
that leave all better off. These interactions result in friendliness, cohesion, and

high morale.

Competitors, by contrast, recognize that others’ successes threaten and frustrate
their own aspirations. They are closer to reaching their goals when others perform
ineffectively and fail to reach theirs. They suspect that others will not help them,
for to do so would only harm their own changes of goal attainment. Indeed, they
may be tempted to try to mislead and interfere in order to better reach their own
goals. They are reluctant to discuss their needs and feelings or to ask for or offer

assistance. Closed to being influenced by the other for fear of being exploited, they
doubt that they can influence others, except by coercion and threat. These
interactions result in frustration, hostility, and low productivity, especially in
joint tasks.
194

The competitive approach (win-lose) to negotiation results, therefore, when
someone attempts to achieve their objective at the expense of a perceived
adversary. He/she not only disagrees with your point of view, but also

gives the appearance of not liking you as a human being. In this
atmosphere, there is considerable stress, judgments are easily formed,
accusations may be made, and scorekeeping takes place. Once you make
adversaries, they tend to stay that way for a long time, for they are difficult
to convert.

193 G. R. Williams. Legal Negotiation and Settlement. St. Paul MN: West, 1983, p. 54.
194 D. Tjosvold. Working Together to Get Things Done. Lexington MA: Heath, 1986, p. 25.

David Kolzow 182