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Is that not clear? Is that dream not uplifting? We do all see “the sinners waxing strong.” How do
(2Bar 4:2-7). Why? It is because the Lord God took Paradise away from Adam and all his we have heard”), for national rage. To be sure, there are many psalms where there is more than
we inculcate being partners with the “people of heaven”?
17
descendants, even Noah (ܒܐܕ ܐܤܝܕܪܦ ܗܢܡ ܗܠ ܬܙܠܓܬܐ.ܟܝܐ 2Bar 4:3). one emotion involved, such as Psalm 147 (“Hallelujah, for it is good to sing unto our God”) where

PSALM 49: A MEDITATION ON DEATH calls to praise God are mixed helter-skelter with the motifs of God of Zion; God as healer; God as
creator; God as a just judge and protector of the weak; God as revealer; and God as the One Who
Our dream literature eventually describes Paradise as open and waiting for us. Recall this poignant Is the Morality in the Apocalypses Focused Only on This Earth?

chooses the Jewish people.
(2Bar 4:2-7). Why? It is because the Lord God took Paradise away from Adam and all his Some nations rise and fall because of their military might; those nations would include, at least,
passage in the Testament of Levi:
1
Is that not clear? Is that dream not uplifting? We do all see “the sinners waxing strong.” How do
we have heard”), for national rage. To be sure, there are many psalms where there is more than
David R. Blumenthal
How does one depict on a printed page the voices, the themes, the structure, and the
17
descendants, even Noah (ܒܐܕ ܐܤܝܕܪܦ ܗܢܡ ܗܠ ܬܙܠܓܬܐ.ܟܝܐ 2Bar 4:3). the early Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Huns, Mongols, and well
one emotion involved, such as Psalm 147 (“Hallelujah, for it is good to sing unto our God”) where

we inculcate being partners with the “people of heaven”?
emotions that may have motivated a psalm? That is the question. Many years of studying,
And he shall open the gates of Paradise, as the more recent Nazis. The ancient “heroes” were renowned because of great warriors like
calls to praise God are mixed helter-skelter with the motifs of God of Zion; God as healer; God as
Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, and Genghis Khan. These nations and warriors, once powerful,
Our dream literature eventually describes Paradise as open and waiting for us. Recall this poignant
Introduction creator; God as a just judge and protector of the weak; God as revealer; and God as the One Who
translating, commenting upon, and teaching psalms have led me to think that the following is the
Is the Morality in the Apocalypses Focused Only on This Earth?

And he shall remove the threatening sword since Adam.
passage in the Testament of Levi: chooses the Jewish people.
The problem with reading psalms is that in most editions, in all languages, the verses are
Some nations rise and fall because of their military might; those nations would include, at least,
best method: give each verse a line; group the verses of each voice on a different margin; and

are in our proverbial review mirrors and lost in the dust behind.
And he shall permit the Holy Ones to eat from the tree of life.

published in one continuous form. The psalm thus appears to the eye as one paragraph. Some the early Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Huns, Mongols, and well
How does one depict on a printed page the voices, the themes, the structure, and the
group the verses of each structural unit (theme) in a paragraph by skipping a line. In addition, one

[TLevi 18:10-11; my new translation]
emotions that may have motivated a psalm? That is the question. Many years of studying,

And he shall open the gates of Paradise,
as the more recent Nazis. The ancient “heroes” were renowned because of great warriors like
should write footnotes with linguistic and stylistic comments and endnotes with reflections and
The Jews and Christians share a different concept of greatness. They have survived for millennia
editors publish psalms with each verse beginning on a new line, but that is just an elongated

And he shall remove the threatening sword since Adam.

Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, and Genghis Khan. These nations and warriors, once powerful,
paragraph. Occasionally, an editor will realize that some psalms have groups of verses that belong
2
advice on how to pray the psalm.
fundamentally because of morality, human values, and expectations and dreams. Many who read
The author of this pseudepigraphon, as with many Semites, occasionally fails to make it pellucidly

And he shall permit the Holy Ones to eat from the tree of life.

best method: give each verse a line; group the verses of each voice on a different margin; and
are in our proverbial review mirrors and lost in the dust behind.

my words would add, by the continuing presence and unlimited power of the Creator. These rules
With this in mind, I would like to dedicate my translation and commentary of Psalm 49 to
together and so the editor will skip a line to signal the change. Even psalms written by a scribe in translating, commenting upon, and teaching psalms have led me to think that the following is the
clear who is the speaker. Most likely, Levi is the intended speaker. He informs his sons that the
[TLevi 18:10-11; my new translation]
group the verses of each structural unit (theme) in a paragraph by skipping a line. In addition, one

a megillah have no visual form connected to the meaning of the text. All these visual presentations Gabi Barkay. My wife and I have known Gabi for over 60 years, as a fellow academic, but mostly
and perspectives are taught notably in families from an early age. The Testaments of the Twelve
“new priest” whom the Lord shall raise up “shall open” (ἀνοίξει) “the gates of Paradise” (τὰς θύρας

should write footnotes with linguistic and stylistic comments and endnotes with reflections and
The Jews and Christians share a different concept of greatness. They have survived for millennia
of psalms do not tell us who is speaking, or to whom the speaker is talking. Further, these visual as a friend. We have been on tours all over Israel with him. We have sat in on his classes. We have
Patriarchs preserves an early record of this custom:
advice on how to pray the psalm.
The author of this pseudepigraphon, as with many Semites, occasionally fails to make it pellucidly
2
fundamentally because of morality, human values, and expectations and dreams. Many who read
τοῦ παραδείσου). Among a people oppressed consistently by foreign powers this divine promise
presentations do not tell us what the emotion that might have generated the verses is, or how we worked on the sifting project. We have hosted him and his partner, Esther, in America. We have
clear who is the speaker. Most likely, Levi is the intended speaker. He informs his sons that the
my words would add, by the continuing presence and unlimited power of the Creator. These rules

With this in mind, I would like to dedicate my translation and commentary of Psalm 49 to
removes anguish and brings forward everlasting hope. Human perception of weakness and finitude
know when the psalmist’s feeling changes. “Reciting psalms,” especially in a liturgical context, is sat with him through conferences
Teach your children also, in which battles between the Jerusalem and the Tel Aviv schools
“new priest” whom the Lord shall raise up “shall open” (ἀνοίξει) “the gates of Paradise” (τὰς θύρας
Gabi Barkay. My wife and I have known Gabi for over 60 years, as a fellow academic, but mostly
and perspectives are taught notably in families from an early age. The Testaments of the Twelve
is evident throughout history. The Jew feels God’s omniscient loving-kindness. The human cannot
τοῦ παραδείσου). Among a people oppressed consistently by foreign powers this divine promise took place. And we have spent endless hours just talking with him about politics, academic affairs,
usually done by one person or even a whole community saying the verses out loud without any
so that they might have understanding throughout all their lives
as a friend. We have been on tours all over Israel with him. We have sat in on his classes. We have
Patriarchs preserves an early record of this custom:
survive or enjoy life without “hope.”
removes anguish and brings forward everlasting hope. Human perception of weakness and finitude worked on the sifting project. We have hosted him and his partner, Esther, in America. We have
and personal matters.
attention to the basic questions just raised. Reciting psalms by reading aloud on page so-and-so,
as they ceaselessly read the Law of God.

is evident throughout history. The Jew feels God’s omniscient loving-kindness. The human cannot
Teach your children also,

or by reading responsively on page so-and-so, or just running through the text as part of a larger
Anyone who has walked with Gabi anywhere recognizes the question, “Do you see that
[TLevi 13:1-2; Kee in OTP 1.792-93]
According to the author of the Testament of Abraham, Paradise is open again and the Holy Ones sat with him through conferences in which battles between the Jerusalem and the Tel Aviv schools
survive or enjoy life without “hope.”
took place. And we have spent endless hours just talking with him about politics, academic affairs,
so that they might have understanding throughout all their lives
building there?” and has then listened to an extended historical talk about it and its place in Jewish
liturgy tells us nothing about the voices, the content, or the structure of the psalm.
are assembled there. Note TAb 20; the speaker is “the undefiled voice of the God and Father”: and personal matters.

as they ceaselessly read the Law of God.
We all assume good parents want their “children” to “have understanding throughout all their
and Zionist history. And who can forget the tour of the tomboli (royal burial mounds) outside

The first task in understanding (and then praying) a psalm is to determine the various voices
According to the author of the Testament of Abraham, Paradise is open again and the Holy Ones [TLevi 13:1-2; Kee in OTP 1.792-93]
Anyone who has walked with Gabi anywhere recognizes the question, “Do you see that
in the psalm. Sometimes, the psalmist is talking to God, but sometimes, he is talking to his Jerusalem?! Or the tour of David’s City which culminated with standing in front of what are,
lives.” Pausing to comprehend each word, I ponder why the author added “all.” Was he thinking
are assembled there. Note TAb 20; the speaker is “the undefiled voice of the God and Father”: building there?” and has then listened to an extended historical talk about it and its place in Jewish
Take, then, my friend Abraham into Paradise, where there are the tents of my righteous
audience, including ourselves; or, in an aside, to himself. Sometimes, the pronouns he uses give almost surely, the graves of Kings David and Solomon, plundered by many and obliterated by the
about the past, present, and future? The work is an apocalyptic testament so maybe the future

and Zionist history. And who can forget the tour of the tomboli (royal burial mounds) outside
We all assume good parents want their “children” to “have understanding throughout all their
ones and (where) the mansions of my holy ones, Isaac and Jacob, are in his bosom, where
sharpened his vision. Recall again his prophecy of a blessed future shared later:
us a clue about which voice he is using; sometimes, he is ambiguous. Similarly, the psalmist is not Romans?! Or, standing in the holy of holies at the altar to God (not an altar to a pagan god) in
Take, then, my friend Abraham into Paradise, where there are the tents of my righteous
Jerusalem?! Or the tour of David’s City which culminated with standing in front of what are,
lives.” Pausing to comprehend each word, I ponder why the author added “all.” Was he thinking
there is no toil, no grief, no moaning, but peace and exultation and endless life.
the only voice in many of these texts. Sometimes, the psalmist speaks. At other times, God or the Arad?! Or being with him at Ketef Hinnom and hearing the story of the discovery of the amulet
ones and (where) the mansions of my holy ones, Isaac and Jacob, are in his bosom, where
almost surely, the graves of Kings David and Solomon, plundered by many and obliterated by the
about the past, present, and future? The work is an apocalyptic testament so maybe the future
bystander or, perhaps, a chorus, is the speaker. Determining the person(s) being addressed and the with the early version of the priestly blessing, the amulet that may have been the predecessor of
[TAb 20:14; E.P. Sanders in OTP 1.895]
And he will open the gates of Paradise,
there is no toil, no grief, no moaning, but peace and exultation and endless life.
sharpened his vision. Recall again his prophecy of a blessed future shared later:
voice(s) that are speaking in any psalm is, therefore, often the first task. Romans?! Or, standing in the holy of holies at the altar to God (not an altar to a pagan god) in
And he will remove the threatening sword since Adam.
the tefillin (phylacteries)?!
Arad?! Or being with him at Ketef Hinnom and hearing the story of the discovery of the amulet
[TAb 20:14; E.P. Sanders in OTP 1.895]
The author provides a clear description of the holy ones, here the patriarchs, who do not toil, grieve, with the early version of the priestly blessing, the amulet that may have been the predecessor of

And he will open the gates of Paradise,
At other times, the first task is to determine the themes and structure of the psalm. In some

Gabi’s combination of great learning, on many levels, has daz
And he will permit the Holy Ones to eat from the tree of life. zled us over and over again.

or moan, but enjoy peace, exultation, and endless life. All the fears of humans are replaced by the tefillin (phylacteries)?! 18
The author provides a clear description of the holy ones, here the patriarchs, who do not toil, grieve,
And he will remove the threatening sword since Adam.
psalms, the structure is clear as, for example, in Psalm 19 (“The heavens declare the glory of God”)
My wife likes to tell Gabi that he should have his brain transferred to a computer to preserve all
[TLevi 18:10-11; my new translation]
exultation and life without end. It is clear that he knows. Our lives, indeed our connection to Israel and Zionism, have been deeply influenced
Gabi’s combination of great learning, on many levels, has dazzled us over and over again.
or moan, but enjoy peace, exultation, and endless life. All the fears of humans are replaced by
And he will permit the Holy Ones to eat from the tree of life.

in which the first section deals with God in nature; the second with God in revelation; and the third
exultation and life without end. It is clear My wife likes to tell Gabi that he should have his brain transferred to a computer to preserve all
18
[TLevi 18:10-11; my new translation]
with God in relationship to humans. Or, Psalm 145 (“I will raise You up, my God, the king”),
What a spectacular promise: “a new priest” will arise and “open the gates of Paradise.” Then,
by Gabi. We are grateful to him for his friendship and his willingness to share what he knows with
Do the Apocalyptists Urge us to Live Elsewhere? that he knows. Our lives, indeed our connection to Israel and Zionism, have been deeply influenced
which is an acrostic, the structure of which is the alphabet. But in most psalms, the structure is us. It is an honor to dedicate this essay to him.
amazingly, “the Holy Ones” will “eat from the tree of life.” Jews and Christians survived because
Do the Apocalyptists Urge us to Live Elsewhere?
by Gabi. We are grateful to him for his friendship and his willingness to share what he knows with
Those who have not comprehended the apocalypses err by claiming the dreamy apocalyptists What a spectacular promise: “a new priest” will arise and “open the gates of Paradise.” Then,
hard to discern because the voices and the themes overlap, and change often. Determining the

they believed – and lived – that expectation.
Those who have not comprehended the apocalypses err by claiming the dreamy apocalyptists
us. It is an honor to dedicate this essay to him.
amazingly, “the Holy Ones” will “eat from the tree of life.” Jews and Christians survived because
mislead us, because we must not live as if the far-off-world is our only abode. Let us not forget
themes and their relationship to one another (the structure) is, then, the second task.
mislead us, because we must not live as if the far-off-world is our only abode. Let us not forget
they believed – and lived – that expectation.

that almost always, the apocalyptic seer returns to earth to instruct and fill the faithful with hope. Just the Text
The rapidly changing voices and themes mean that the first and second tasks are not always
Psalm 49

Just the Text
that almost always, the apocalyptic seer returns to earth to instruct and fill the faithful with hope.
Recall 1 Enoch 104: 1 A conundrum concerning death
What Significant Advances Have Been Made in the Study of Ancient Apocalypses?
“first”, and then “second.” Rather, the determination of voice, theme, and structure must evolve
Psalm 49
Recall 1 Enoch 104:
together. 1 A conundrum concerning death
What Significant Advances Have Been Made in the Study of Ancient Apocalypses?
I remember the first PhD seminar I taught at Duke University in the early 1970s on the Old
Now fear not, righteous ones, when you see the sinners waxing strong and
The next task in understanding (and then praying) a psalm is to determine the emotion that might I remember the first PhD seminar I taught at Duke University in the early 1970s on the Old
Now fear not, righteous ones, when you see the sinners waxing strong and
Hear this, all peoples.
:םימעה-לכ תאז-ועמש
2

Testament Pseudepigrapha. More than 50 books had to be placed on reserve so the students could
have generated such a psalm. There are times when that emotion is gratitude, such as Psalm 100 2 Testament Pseudepigrapha. More than 50 books had to be placed on reserve so the students could
flourishing, do not be partners with them, but keep far away from those who
flourishing, do not be partners with them, but keep far away from those who

Hear this, all peoples.
:םימעה-לכ תאז-ועמש

Listen, all who dwell on earth –
-
:דלח יבשי
לכ וניזאה
read translations of the works; there was no definition of this genre and no published collection
(“A psalm of thanksgiving”), or Psalm 113 (“Hallelujah, sing praise, oh servants of the Lord”). 3 Listen, all who dwell on earth – :דלח יבשי - לכ וניזאה
lean onto their own injustice; for you are to be partners with the good-hearted
lean onto their own injustice; for you are to be partners with the good-hearted
read translations of the works; there was no definition of this genre and no published collection
Ordinary people and those who are privileged, שיא-ינב-םג םדא ינב-םג
except, perhaps, Johann Albert Fabricius’ collection in Latin, Codex pseudepigraphus Veteris
people of heaven. [1En 104:6; Isaac in OTP 1.85] 3 except, perhaps, Johann Albert Fabricius’ collection in Latin, Codex pseudepigraphus Veteris
Ordinary people and those who are privileged, שיא-ינב-םג םדא ינב-םג
people of heaven. [1En 104:6; Isaac in OTP 1.85]
There are others where the emotion is danger, such as Psalm 30 (“I will raise you up, my
Testamenti in 1713 and Jacques-Paul Migne’s French collection in Dictionnaire des apocryphes
Testamenti in 1713 and Jacques-Paul Migne’s French collection in Dictionnaire des apocryphes
in 1856. R.H. Charles’ monumental volumes in 1913, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the
God, for You have saved me”), or Psalm 121 (“I lift up my eyes to the mountains from whence

1
If you doubt this, pick the person you are angriest at, take verses 6-19 of Psalm 109, and recite them out loud with
comes my help”). Psalms 38-39 (“Lord, do not rebuke me in Your anger”) provide examples of in 1856. R.H. Charles’ monumental volumes in 1913, The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the
Old Testament were out-of-print and widely considered an abridged version of the ill-defined
If you doubt this, pick the person you are angriest at, take verses 6-19 of Psalm 109, and recite them out loud with
1
Old Testament were out-of-print and widely considered an abridged version of the ill-defined
outright despair, and there are yet others when it is anger, sometimes even rage, such as Psalm 109 him in mind. If that person is female, change the pronouns. And, if you are still doubtful, put a vision of the holocaust
him in mind. If that person is female, change the pronouns. And, if you are still doubtful, put a vision of the holocaust

in your mind and recite verses 19-27 of Psalm 44 out loud, being sure to raise your voice for verses 24-27.
(“Oh God of my praise, do not
be silent”) for personal rage, and Psalm 44 (“Oh God, with our ears in your mind and recite verses 19-27 of Psalm 44 out loud, being sure to raise your voice for verses 24-27.

17

I hope, with the help of the Almighty, to publish a book of selected Psalms in this manner before my time in this
For the Syriac text, see S. Dedering, “Apocalypse of Baruch,” Vetus Testamentum Syriace (Leiden: Brill, 1973) p.
I hope, with the help of the Almighty, to publish a book of selected Psalms in this manner before my time in this
2 2
17 For the Syriac text, see S. Dedering, “Apocalypse of Baruch,” Vetus Testamentum Syriace (Leiden: Brill, 1973) p. 18 I endeavor to reserve “shall” for God’s actions.
18
[2].
world is over.
world is over.
I endeavor to reserve “shall” for God’s actions.
[2].
12 29

dismissed as focus turned to moral obsessions on an isolated earth. Only one later story preserves who dismiss the description of the serpent in Genesis as fictious need to continue reading and
40
corpus. I discovered that the lead plates of Charles’ volumes had been melted down to make bullets
sapiens began to appear about 300,000 years ago in Africa. The evolution was multidimensional
in the Great War. All students preferred translations in English; moreover, virtually no reliable text
the “memory” of Akiba ben Yosef (c. 50 to 135 CE) and his three colleagues who ascended into studying.
and involved vast transformations and increased abilities. Just as humans once, almost
the blessed heavens by intense focus on G-d’s Ineffable Name (Tosafot, Chagiga 14b, Zohar who dismiss the description of the serpent in Genesis as fictious need to continue reading and
editions were published for many of the documents I was convinced should be included in the
inadvertently, became extinct in the Pleistocene era, so humans may deliberately obliterate all
1.26b, and Tikunei Zohar, Tikun 40). studying. 40
corpus we all called “the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.”
sapiens began to appear about 300,000 years ago in Africa. The evolution was multidimensional
earthly life.
corpus. I discovered that the lead plates of Charles’ volumes had been melted down to make bullets and involved vast transformations and increased abilities. Just as humans once, almost
Is there also a blessed scenario? Yes, but it is preserved in ancient apocalypses, notably Daniel and
Many of the books in the Hebrew Bible, apocalypses, Dead Sea Scrolls, the Pseudepigrapha, and inadvertently, became extinct in the Pleistocene era, so humans may deliberately obliterate all
in the Great War. All students preferred translations in English; moreover, virtually no reliable text
Since the 1970s, gifted men and women have provided texts, translations, and studies focused on
Revelation.
editions were published for many of the documents I was convinced should be included in the earthly life.
most of the New Testament, bear witness to the former apocalyptic imaginations; the latter ethical
one of the documents in the OTP. Now we have a known corpus that is increasing. At that time,
corpus we all called “the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.” Is there also a blessed scenario? Yes, but it is preserved in ancient apocalypses, notably Daniel and
masterpieces are preserved in the Mishnah and Rabbinic texts.
focus was almost always on philology and history. Now, we have a vineyard of ancient apocalyptic
creations, so to speak, and we may enjoy its fruits by exploring the eternal questions and asking in What did the early optimistic apocalyptists imagine? They pondered a Creator that had promised
a marvelous world, evident now only in their ten or more heavens, and soon appearing on earth
Since the 1970s, gifted men and women have provided texts, translations, and studies focused on Revelation.
During Early Judaism – approximately 300 BCE to 150 CE – the great apocalypses, like Daniel,

what ways, if at all, these complex ancient compositions help us draw closer to possibly reliable
one of the documents in the OTP. Now we have a known corpus that is increasing. At that time,
1 Enoch, 2 Enoch, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, the History of the Rechabites, and the vast amounts due to God’s continuing fidelity, love, and righteousness. Many Jews and Christians before about
(perhaps revealed) perceptions and answers. Here are some areas we may all continue to explore: of
What did the early optimistic apocalyptists imagine? They pondered a Creator that had promised
150 CE, imagined and expected “a New Jerusalem” descending to earth (Revelation 21:1-2).
focus was almost always on philology and history. Now, we have a vineyard of ancient apocalyptic
apocalyptic texts, like The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, were composed. What was the a marvelous world, evident now only in their ten or more heavens, and soon appearing on earth
creations, so to speak, and we may enjoy its fruits by exploring the eternal questions and asking in

primary message of those who created the luminous apocalypses and apocalyptic compositions? due to God’s continuing fidelity, love, and righteousness. Many Jews and Christians before about
First, how is the Creator perceived? Are we wise to ask about monotheism or henotheism? To what
what ways, if at all, these complex ancient compositions help us draw closer to possibly reliable
The Jewish and Christian authors of the apocalyptic masterpieces and the modern astrophysicists
These authors urged all to look up and into the vast heavens. They claimed some had been led into
extent is the Eternal One represented by “the Lord Our God”? Is this Being powerful or has he 150 CE, imagined and expected “a New Jerusalem” descending to earth (Revelation 21:1-2).
(perhaps revealed) perceptions and answers. Here are some areas we may all continue to explore:
offer a perception of a universe full of wonder that excites beliefs about an incomprehensible
other worlds above in which some were suffering and others were blessed enjoying a new life with Supreme Being or Mind. If all of us humans cease our hatred and fear and join together as creatures
delimited his might by creating Adam, in his image, and with the freedom to reject the good and
all human hopes.
First, how is the Creator perceived? Are we wise to ask about monotheism or henotheism? To what The Jewish and Christian authors of the apocalyptic masterpieces and the modern astrophysicists
even the Creator? How and in what ways can the Creator effect history; is this One incapable, by
offer a perception of a universe full of wonder that excites beliefs about an incomprehensible
of the One and Blessed God, then we still have time to experience a οὐρανὸν καινὸν καὶ γῆν
extent is the Eternal One represented by “the Lord Our God”? Is this Being powerful or has he

self-limitations, to never intervene but only to supervene? And how may we make such
καινήν. Can any of us believe the ancient apocalyptist, noted at the beginning, who envisioned that
delimited his might by creating Adam, in his image, and with the freedom to reject the good and Supreme Being or Mind. If all of us humans cease our hatred and fear and join together as creatures
The authors of the first apocalypses could not see or imagine the expanding universe and awe-
distinctions?
of the One and Blessed God, then we still have time to experience a οὐρανὸν καινὸν καὶ γῆν
even the Creator? How and in what ways can the Creator effect history; is this One incapable, by “the angels of God dwell among us” (καὶ οἱ ἄγγϵλοι τοῦ θεοῦ οἰκοῦσιν μεθ᾽ ἡμῶν)?
inspiring innumerable galaxies revealed by the Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) telescope. That
καινήν. Can any of us believe the ancient apocalyptist, noted at the beginning, who envisioned that
self-limitations, to never intervene but only to supervene? And how may we make such “the angels of God dwell among us” (καὶ οἱ ἄγγϵλοι τοῦ θεοῦ οἰκοῦσιν μεθ᾽ ἡμῶν)?
19
methodology helps astronomers (notably Mario Livio) to estimate the presence of between 100
Second, the Bible is the “Crucible of the Pseudepigrapha.” Those who wrote these cultural
distinctions?
billion and 200 billion galaxies. Some remarkably may be moving faster than the speed of light;
shaping apocalyptic masterpieces intimate and even anticipate a beatific future since God claimed

and physicists, Günter Nimtz and Alfons Stahlhofen), conducted experiments in which photons
the “End” of creation would be glorious. They also knew that the future, for God, is also the
19
Second, the Bible is the “Crucible of the Pseudepigrapha.” Those who wrote these cultural

were observed moving faster than the speed of light. The ancient visionaries could not contemplate
present, since God by definition transcends categories like “time.” If so, then God saw and
shaping apocalyptic masterpieces intimate and even anticipate a beatific future since God claimed
black holes, but perhaps they could imagine what a friend and astronaut shared with me; he
pronounced the beginning and end of creation “good” [׃בוַֹֽט־יִּכּ םיִָּּ֖הלֱֹא א ְרֵַּּ֥יַּו]. Almost always, Jews
the “End” of creation would be glorious. They also knew that the future, for God, is also the
imagined that the inexplicable black holes may be entrances into another world. That is wise
present, since God by definition transcends categories like “time.” If so, then God saw and
who left us apocalypses foresaw a blessed future for those faithful to the Creator; their life would
speculation since all cosmic objects near a black hole speed into it and perhaps continue
pronounced the beginning and end of creation “good” [׃בוַֹֽט־יִּכּ םיִָּּ֖הלֱֹא א ְרֵַּּ֥יַּו]. Almost always, Jews
be similar to those enjoying the Abode of the Rechabites – perhaps only after we stop breathing.
who left us apocalypses foresaw a blessed future for those faithful to the Creator; their life would
somewhere as water in a bathtub flows out through a drain to many distant places.
be similar to those enjoying the Abode of the Rechabites – perhaps only after we stop breathing.

Third, how and in what ways are “humans” similar to animals and also different from other
creatures? A few animals, like the octopi, chimpanzees, and especially bottlenose dolphins seem
Black holes seem to be everywhere and one large one is in the middle of our galaxy and moving
Third, how and in what ways are “humans” similar to animals and also different from other
towards us. At a future event, all in our solar system will vanish in a flash. When I was in
20
to possess cognitive abilities equal to humans. And tortoises may live over 150 years while
creatures? A few animals, like the octopi, chimpanzees, and especially bottlenose dolphins seem
Yellowstone, I was informed that an apocalyptic denouement is expected; a specialist warned that
humans often pass away before 80. Some apes and monkeys can use their hands. How intelligent
to possess cognitive abilities equal to humans. And tortoises may live over 150 years while
20
the “Giant Yellowstone Supervolcano” beneath the park discloses an overdue explosion. It will
is the octopus; is this creature’s strategies due only to ecological intelligence (that is, the ability to
humans often pass away before 80. Some apes and monkeys can use their hands. How intelligent
erupt and wipe out all life in the USA and perhaps on the earth. In the estimation of other
secure food) or is it capable of planning (as Piero Amodio of the University of Padua observed)?
is the octopus; is this creature’s strategies due only to ecological intelligence (that is, the ability to
21
specialists, the eruption is about a hundred millennia away. Finally, meteorologists warn that in
How have the 3,400 species of serpents (reptiles, snakes) existed 20 times longer than humans
secure food) or is it capable of planning (as Piero Amodio of the University of Padua observed)?
21
the future, climate change will wipe out most of Florida and other low-lying areas on earth. Some
and yet cannot blink, and most move without hands or legs and can disarticulate their jaws so they
How have the 3,400 species of serpents (reptiles, snakes) existed 20 times longer than humans
can swallow others whole? I should add that the Tetrapodophis specimen from the Cretaceous is
experts have a different scenario; they are concerned that a “catastrophic cyber event”
and yet cannot blink, and most move without hands or legs and can disarticulate their jaws so they [Ancient Egyptian Art often Shows a Serpent with Feet. Above is a depiction of
can swallow others whole? I should add that the Tetrapodophis specimen from 22 the Cretaceous Nehebkau, the Snake God. Egyptian Book of the Dead.]
developing. Today we are sharing daunting futures with the ancient apocalyptists.
Period has two feet and tiny front legs (or hands). It also has five fingers or toes. Certainly, all

Period has two feet and tiny front legs (or hands). It also has five fingers or toes. Certainly, all [Ancient Egyptian Art often Shows a Serpent with Feet. Above is a depiction of
22

Life on earth has been fragile. It is imperative that all of us comprehend how humans on earth Nehebkau, the Snake God. Egyptian Book of the Dead.]

declined to a mere 1,280 people and almost became extinct between 930,000 and 813,000 years

19
19 See Charlesworth, “Biblical Stories and Quotations Reflected and Even Adumbrated in the Old Testament
ago. Perhaps it was due to glacial events, declining temperatures, droughts, and the loss of animals
See Charlesworth, “Biblical Stories and Quotations Reflected and Even Adumbrated in the Old Testament
Pseudepigrapha,” in S. Delamarter, A Scripture Index to Charlesworth’s The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (London,
Pseudepigrapha,” in S. Delamarter, A Scripture Index to Charlesworth’s The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (London,
and vegetation that “humans” needed for survival. As a result, human diversity was diminished.
New York: Sheffield, 2002) p. 1-6.
New York: Sheffield, 2002) p. 1-6.
20 See esp. J. R. Learn, “Just How Intelligent Are Dolphins?” Discover (March 26 2021)). discovery of fire; the
Then, there was an accelerated population boom, caused – perhaps – by the
20
See esp. J. R. Learn, “Just How Intelligent Are Dolphins?” Discover (March 26 2021)).
21 The number “3,400” is from the Encyclopedia Britanica (2023). bipedal (the ability to walk). About 1.9 40
21
earth’s warming climate; and some hominins became
The number “3,400” is from the Encyclopedia Britanica (2023).
I am indebted to the insights of scientists reported by Eric Ralls in “Humans Almost Went Extinct as Population
22 40
22
Today, pythons have a pair of little spurs that have evolved from earlier feet. Lizards still have something like feet.
million years ago, Homo erectus appeared with a larger brain and could use advanced tools. Declined to only 1,280 People,” Earth (September 1, 2023). See also, Wangjie Hu, et al., “Genomic Inference of a
Today, pythons have a pair of little spurs that have evolved from earlier feet. Lizards still have something like feet.
I am indebted to the insights of scientists reported by Eric Ralls in “Humans Almost Went Extinct as Population
See the illustrated and highly informative “A Fossil Snake With Four Legs” by Ed Young in National Geographic Severe Human Bottleneck During the Early to Middle Pleastocene Transition,” Science 381 (31 August 2023).
See the illustrated and highly informative “A Fossil Snake With Four Legs” by Ed Young in National Geographic
Declined to only 1,280 People,” Earth (September 1, 2023). See also, Wangjie Hu, et al., “Genomic Inference of a
Neanderthals appeared about 400,000 years ago but became extinct about 40,000 years ago. Homo
(July 23 2015).
(July 23 2015).
Severe Human Bottleneck During the Early to Middle Pleastocene Transition,” Science 381 (31 August 2023).
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