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Temple (6, 14). For a fuller discussion on these exercises, see my study of elementary
5
scribal education.
afterwards the ḥet-zain order as well as two others (waw-he and lamed-kaf) turned up
11
6

in the Tel Zayit inscription. In spite of their obvious differences and the separation of
Then the teacher tested the novice by various simple writing exercises or permutations
over 500 years, both the Izbet Sartah ostracon and the Book of Lamentations
preserved a scribal tradition that may have been a local Israelite one, beginning in the
of the alphabet. Notably, it was the at-bash exercise that best challenged the cognitive
7
skills of the learner to move beyond learning the letters by rote. Jeremiah, assuming
premonarchial era and extending into the post exilic period. Indeed, both respective
ב קרפ הכיא

that his audience was minimally literate, applied the at-bash exercise to enhance his
texts, are actually at opposite ends of literacy, i.e., one a beginner’s exercise, while the
prophecy and encourage his audience to actively decipher it. These prophesies
other an accomplished literary work. In my opinion, the poet chose this form as a
illustrate the application of writing drills in creating literary compositions:
challenge to his artistic prowess to express his thoughts in this tight alphabetic
acrostic. assuming that the audience was somewhat literate would appreciate the
8

aesthetically pleasing structure. Likewise, whoever uses the expression “from A to Z”
הכ קרפ הימרי

12

ז יֵכְלַמ לָּכ תֵאְו )הכ(
to express completeness, or alternately ת דע
י רְמ

ף"ל
מ - א (BT Shabbat 55 a), or “from
:יָּדָּמ יֵכְלַמ לָּכ תֵאְו םָּליֵע יֵכְלַמ לָּכ תֵאְו

ו"
ֹ
΄Aλφα to ΄Ωμέγα” (Revelation 22:13) is assuming that the listener has a basic
ֹ
.
םֶהי ֵרֲחאַ הֶת
ךְַשֵׁשׁ
ְשׁי

ךְֶלֶמוּ
understanding of the alphabet.

אנ קרפ

תי חְשַׁמ ַחוּר
ֹ
א
.
-
לֶאְו לֶבָּב
לַע רי עֵמ יננ ה 'ה רַמאָ הכ

ְ
יֵבְשֹׁ
יָּמָּק בֵל
Scribal training
- י
9
אמ
Abecedaries are the basic writing exercises in all alphabetic cultures. The first step in
ךְַשׁ
ֵשׁ

לָּכ תַל הְת שֵׂפָּת תַו
-
ְ

ֵ
הָּדְכְלנ ךְיא
.
םיוֹגַּב לֶבָּב הָּמַשְׁל הָּתיָּה ךְיֵא ץ ֶראָָּה

learning to write is to master the alphabet first, by developing manual dexterity in
The next step takes the writer out of the school allowing him/her to practice literary
copying the form of the letters, and second, by memorizing their order, usually aided
by a mnemonic song. This elementary stage is reflected in the number of abecedaries
creativity in composing an acrostic poem. One of the earliest examples is the
incomplete acrostic in Nahum, chapter 1. It is no surprise that this genre appears in
found in Hebrew epigraphy and in Ammonite seals (written in negative). Another
th
the seventh century BCE prophesy. I have argued that, already in the 8 century BCE,
learning exercise was using the alphabet to order and recall information, particularly
there was a notable increase in literacy in ancient Israel. This phenomenon of an
personal names. I proposed that the prophet Zechariah alphabetized the names of the
10
incomplete acrostic is noted in Song of Songs Rabba 1, 7: “This poet when making an
donors (Helem, Tuvia and Yedayah) who sent gifts to the treasury of the Second
alphabetic (acrostic), at times will complete it and at other times will leave it

13
incomplete.” Most of the other full and abbreviated biblical acrostics are in the book
5
Shmuel Ahituv in Ze’ev Meshel, et al, Kuntillet ʻAjrud (Ḥorvat Teman): An Iron Age II Religious Site
14
on the Judah-Sinai Border (Jerusalem, 2012); idem, Shmuel Ahituv. "Notes on the Kuntillet 'Ajrud
of Psalms (Psalms 9-10, 25, 34, 37, 112, 114, 119, 145. Chapter 119 is notable for
Inscriptions", Eshel, Esther; Levin, Yigal (eds.). "See, I will bring a scroll recounting what befell me"
the eightfold repetition of the letters of the alphabet; The Book of Proverbs has several
(Ps 40:8): Epigraphy and Daily Life from the Bible to the Talmud. (2014, Göttingen), pp. 29–38.
6
Tappy, Ron E., P. Kyle McCarter, Marilyn J. Lundberg, Bruce Zuckerman, "An Abecedary of the

Mid-Tenth Century B.C.E. from the Judaean Shephelah", BASOR 344 (2006), pp 5–46.
Mitchel First, "Using the Pe–Ayin Order of the Abecedaries of Ancient Israel to Date the Book of
Aaron Demsky, Literacy (Jerusalem, 2012), ch. 4, pp. 169-182; Nahman Avigad and Benjamin Sass,
7
11
Psalms,” Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 38(4) (2014), pp. 471-485.
Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals (Jerusalem, 1997), pp. 366-371.
8
Compare other structured literary works like the 14-line sonnet or the 3-line haiku with 5-7-5
12
If the original text had the more difficult יכמז and not ירמז - if so, it’s an at-bash equivalent of "םליע"
which leads me to believe that those following words "םליע יכלמ לכ"
syllables.
are an explanatory conflate of לכ
"ירמז יכלמ (see the same phenomenon in I Chron. 5, 26). Note also that in Jeremiah 25 and Jeremiah 51
9
Marshall McLuhan and Robert K. Logan, “Alphabet, Mother of Invention,” Et Cetera A Journal
the code names מק בל ,
Devoted to the Role of Symbols in Human Behavior 34 (1977), pp. 373-383; Aaron Demsky,
ךשש have a parallel לבב, so there should be no mistake.
י
“Abecedaries”, in William W. Hallo (ed.), The Context of Scripture-Vol. 1: Canonical Texts from the
13
"הל לסחימ תילד ןינמזו הל לסחמ ןינמז ,אתיב אפלא דיבע דכ אנטייפ ןידה"
Biblical World (Leiden), (1997), pp. 364-367.
See Amos Hakham, Da’at mikra: Psalms, (Jerusalem: Mossad Harav Kook ,1990), vol 1, p. 189
14
Jack Goody, The Domestication of the Savage Mind (Cambridge, 1977), p 111.
10
footnote 9. He suggests that the original orders of the letters of this chapter were peh-ayin.

36
45
repeated threefold abecedary written in ink on a jar from Kuntilat `Ajrud and הָּמָּדֲאָּה י ֵנְפ לַע רֶשֲׁא ץ ֶראָָּה תוֹכְלְמַמַה לָּכ תֵאְו וי חאָ לֶא שׁי א םי קח ְרָּהְו םי ברְקַה ןוֹפָּצַה יֵכְלַמ לָּכ תֵאְו )וכ( "

ָּ
32

ָּ
ֹ
15
ֹ
ֲ
ַ

ֵ
Date and Authors אלֹ י תָּמֲח סוֹכ תַעַבֻק תֶא הָּלֵע ְרַתַה סוֹכ תֶא ךְֵדיּ מ י תְחַקָּל הנ ה וֹמַע בי רי ךְיַהלֹאֵו 'ה ךְינד א רַמאָ הכ )בכ( lived circa 520 BCE. This literary phenomenon of signing has been noted for Judging from elementary writing exercises, like the al-bm drill, we see that the
acrostics, the best-known is the Paean to a Woman of Valor (chapter 31, 10-31).
26
chapters, see Joshua Berman’s paper. Below we will suggest our own reading of the
26
32
ַ
ָּ
אלֹ י תָּמֲח סוֹכ תַעַבֻק תֶא הָּלֵע ְרַתַה סוֹכ תֶא ךְֵדיּ מ י תְחַקָּל הנ ה וֹמַע בי רי ךְיַהלֹאֵו 'ה ךְינד א רַמאָ הכ )בכ( lived circa 520 BCE. This literary phenomenon of signing has been noted for chapters, see Joshua Berman’s paper. Below we will suggest our own reading of the
ֹ
ָּ
ֵ

ֹ
ֲ

pairs.
There are some general issues that should be mentioned in passing. The first is the : דוֹע הָּּתוֹתְשׁ ל י פי סוֹת From the later Wisdom literature, cf. Ben-Sira (180 BCE), chapter 51. alphabet lends itself to inner division. In chapters 1, 2 and 4, the author has divided
Ezekiel in his consecration (3, 7-9, 14):
: דוֹע הָּּתוֹתְשׁ ל י פי סוֹת Ezekiel in his consecration (3, 7-9, 14): pairs.
ֹ
ַ
ַ
ֹ
ַ

ַ
ֵגּ

date of Lamentations, and the second, the number of authors who composed this :םי רְבעַל ץוּחַכְו ךְֵו ץ ֶראָָּכ י מי שָּׂתַו ה ָּרבֲענְו י חְשׁ ךְֵשְׁפנְל וּרְמאָ רֶשֲׁא ךְיגוֹמ דיְב ָּהי תְמַשְׂו )גכ( בֵל יֵשְׁקוּ חַצֵמ יֵקזִח לֵא ָּרְשׂי תיֵב לָּכ י כ יָּלֵא ַעמְשׁ ל םי בא םניֵא י כ ךָיֶלֵא ַעמְשׁ ל וּבאי אלֹ לֵא ָּרְשׂי תיֵבוּ )ז( each chapter into halves, or almost halves, changing the subject in order to hear

ָּ
ֹ
ֹ
ְ
ֹ

ֹ

יֵקזִח
ֹ
לֵא ָּרְשׂי תיֵב לָּכ י כ יָּלֵא ַעמְשׁ ל םי בא םניֵא י כ ךָיֶלֵא ַעמְשׁ ל וּבאי אלֹ לֵא ָּרְשׂי תיֵבוּ )ז(
ָּ

ְ
ֹ
ֹ
ֹ

בֵל יֵשְׁקוּ חַצֵמ

ַ
ַ
ַ
ֹ
ץ ֶראָָּכ י מי שָּׂתַו ה ָּרבֲענְו י חְשׁ ךְֵשְׁפנְל וּרְמאָ רֶשֲׁא ךְיגוֹמ דיְב ָּהי תְמַשְׂו )גכ(
ֵגּ
ֹ
:םי רְבעַל ץוּחַכְו ךְֵו
ַ
book. Judging from the poignancy and distress of the described atrocities and בנ קרפ Lamentations הָּמֵה alternating voices: In chapter 1:1-11a – Zion’s suffering is described in the third
This literary development adds another dimension to the work of the accomplished
Date and Authors
This literary development adds another dimension to the work of the accomplished
הָּמֵה
בנ קרפ
16
ְ

ְ
ֵ
ָּ
ֹ
ֹ
22
ךָינָּפ תֶא י תַתנ הנ ה )ח(
destruction in each of the laments, it seems that they were written by someone who ל ֵרָּע דוֹע ךְָּב אבי ףי סוֹי אלֹ י כ שֶׁדקַה רי ע םַלָּשׁוּרי ךְֵת ְראְַפ ת יֵדג ב י שְׁב ל ןוֹיּ צ ךְזֻע י שְׁב ל י רוּע י רוּע )א( The Book of Lamentations continues to attract scholarly attention. It is a fascinating person, vss. 11b-22 – Zion speaks mostly in the first person feminine.
ָ
ָּ
ךֲָחְצ מ תֶאְו םֶהינְפ תַמֻעְל ם
םָּחְצ מ תַמֻעְל

ֵ

ָ י
ֵ
ִִקזֲח
ֶ
קזָח
scribe who is writing for a wider, literate, audience. On the one hand, the author is
There are some general issues that should be mentioned in passing. The first is the
קזָח

ךֲָחְצ מ תֶאְו םֶהינְפ תַמֻעְל ם
ֶ
scribe who is writing for a wider, literate, audience. On the one hand, the author is
םָּחְצ מ תַמֻעְל
ִִקזֲח
ָּ
ֵ
ךָינָּפ תֶא י תַתנ הנ ה )ח(
ֵ
ָ
ָ י
ְ
ֵ
ָּ
ֹ
ֹ

אבי ףי סוֹי אלֹ י כ שֶׁדקַה רי ע םַלָּשׁוּרי ךְֵת ְראְַפ ת יֵדג ב י שְׁב ל ןוֹיּ צ ךְזֻע י שְׁב ל י רוּע י רוּע )א(
ל ֵרָּע דוֹע ךְָּב
ְ
witnessed this national catastrophe - a younger contemporary of Jeremiah and
date of Lamentations, and the second, the number of authors who composed this :אֵמָּטְו work in that the kinah is traditionally an oral genre practiced in ancient Israel by Chapter 2:1-10 God is a merciless enemy who destroyed his “foot stool” Jerusalem,
composing an alphabetic acrostic, and on the other, repeating the same or similar root,
ָּ
ֹ
רי מָּשְׁכ )ט(
:הָּמֵה י רְמ תיֵב י כ םֶהינְפ מ תַחֵת אלְֹו םָּתוֹא א ָּרי ת אלֹ ךֶָחְצ מ י תַתנ רצ מ
:אֵמָּטְו
רי מָּשְׁכ )ט(
:הָּמֵה י רְמ תיֵב י כ םֶהי

composing an alphabetic acrostic, and on the other, repeating the same or similar root,
ֵֵנְפ מ תַחֵת אלְֹו םָּתוֹא א ָּרי ת אלֹ ךֶָחְצ מ י תַתָּנ רֹ צמ
ָ ק
קזָח ָזָח
st
17
vss. 11-17 description by lamenter (1 person); vss. 18-19: Hope for the future: call
women lamenters meqonenot and yet the book is a well-structured literary piece. For
ַ
ְ
ָּ

book. Judging from the poignancy and distress of the described atrocities and :ןוֹיּ צ תַב היּ בְשׁ ךְ ֵראָּוַּצ י ֵרְסוֹמ י ח ְתַפְת ה [ [ וחתפתה ] ] םָּלָּשׁוּרי י בְש י מוּק רָּפָּעֵמ י רֲענְת ה )ב( the duality of the written and oral forms of this genre, see II Chron 35:25: “Jeremiah word or phrase in corresponding sentences, in what is termed an at-bash order, or a
ְ

הָקזָח יַלָּע 'ה דָקָזָח
Ezekiel, the great Writing Prophets at the end of the Monarchy. The fact that in
יַלָּע 'ה דיְו י חוּר תַמֲחַב רַמ ךְֵלֵאָּו ינֵחָּק תַו ינְתאַָּשׂנ ַחוּרְו )די(
ָ
ָּ
:ןוֹיּ צ תַב היּ בְשׁ ךְ ֵראָּוַּצ י ֵרְסוֹמ י ח
ַ
: ה :
ַַיְו י חוּר תַמֲחַב רַמ ךְֵלֵאָּו י נֵחָּק תַו י נְתאַָּשְׂנ ַחוּרְו )די(
word or phrase in corresponding sentences, in what is termed an at-bash order, or a
ְתַפְת ה
ם ָּלָּשׁוּרי י בְש י מוּק רָּפָּעֵמ י רֲענְת ה )ב(
וחתפתה
ְ

for prayer, vss. 20-22 Jerusalem beseeches God.

ֹ
ָּ
22
destruction in each of the laments, it seems that they were written by someone who :וּלֵאָּגּ ת ףֶסֶכְב אלְֹו םֶת ְרַכְמנ םנ ח 'ה רַמאָ הכ י כ )ג( :and for Micah (7,18): 27 chiastic chain. This so-called chain finds a correspondence in the first and last letters,
:וּלֵאָּגּ ת ףֶסֶכְב אלְֹו םֶת ְרַכְמנ םנ ח 'ה רַמאָ הכ י כ )ג(
ָּ
chiastic chain. This so-called chain finds a correspondence in the first and last letters,

ֹ
Second Isaiah (Isa. 40- 66), the author, who lived around 540 BCE, composed a
27
:and for Micah (7,18):
composed laments for Josiah, which all the singers, male and female, recited in their
Chapter 3:1-24 First person lamenter; vss. 25-39: Third person lamenter; vss. 40-47:
ָּ

ֹ
ֹ
ֹ
ָּ
ָּ
witnessed this national catastrophe - a younger contemporary of Jeremiah and :וֹקָּשֲׁע סֶפֶאְב רוּשַאְו םָּשׁ רוּגָּל הנשׁא רָּב י מַע ד ַרי םי ַרְצ מ 'ה ינדֲא רַמאָ הכ י כ )ד( אוּה דֶסֶח ץֵפָּח י כ וֹפַא דַעָּל קיזֱחֶה אלֹ וֹתָּלֲחנ תי רֵאְשׁ ל עַשֶׁפ לַע רֵבעְו ןוָֹּע אֵשׂנ ךָוֹמ ִָכ ל ֵא יִמ )חי( the second and 21 st

ָּ
ַ
ֹ
ֹ
:וֹקָּשֲׁע סֶפֶאְב רוּשַאְו םָּשׁ רוּגָּל הנשׁא רָּב י מַע ד ַרי םי ַרְצ מ 'ה ינדֲא רַמאָ הכ י כ )ד(
ָּ
ָּ
st letter, and so on. The usual chiastic pattern in biblical and
ֹ
ֹ
ֹ
prophesy of comfort (Isa. 51:12-52:11) echoing the laments, provides a terminus ante laments for Josiah, as is done to this day: they became customary in Israel and are )חי(יִמ לֵאִָכךָוֹמ אלֹ וֹתָּלֲחַנ תי רֵאְשׁ ל עַשֶׁפ לַע רֵבֹעְו ןוָֹּע אֵשֹׂ נ אוּה דֶסֶח ץֵפָּח י כ וֹפַא דַעָּל קי זֱחֶה the second and 21 letter, and so on. The usual chiastic pattern in biblical and
First person plural collective personality; vss. 48-66: First person singular - his sorrow
ָּ
ְנ הפ י ל הַמ ימ הָּתַעְו )ה(
ֹ
ֹ
ֹ
ְ
ְ
Ezekiel, the great Writing Prophets at the end of the Monarchy. The fact that in :ץאָנ מ י מְשׁ םוֹיַּה לָּכ די מָּתְו 'ה םֻאנ וּלי ליֵהי ויָּלְשׁמ ולשמ םנ ח י מַע חַקֻל י כ 'ה םֻא ְנ הפ י ל הַמ ימ הָּתַעְו )ה( And perhaps in Hoshea (1, 7): Canaanite poetry is short a+b+c//c`+b`+a` 33, which is characteristic of oral recitation.
33
ֹ
ֹ
:ץאָנ מ י מְשׁ םוֹיַּה לָּכ די מָּתְו 'ה םֻאנ וּלי ליֵהי ויָּלְשׁמ ולשמ םנ ח י מַע חַקֻל י כ 'ה םֻא
ְ
ֹ
ָּ
ְ
23
quem date for Lamentations: And perhaps in Hoshea (1, 7): Canaanite poetry is short a+b+c//c`+b`+a` , which is characteristic of oral recitation.
for the fate of his people.
now written in [the book of] Lamentations.” This verse is the main source of Jewish

ֵ

ֵ
Second Isaiah (Isa. 40- 66), the author, who lived around 540 BCE, composed a :יננ ה רֵבַדְמַה אוּה ינֲא י כ אוּהַה םוֹיַּב ןֵכָּל י מְשׁ י מַע עַדי ןֵכָּל )ו( םי סוּסְב הָּמָּחְל מְבוּ ב ֶרֶחְבוּ תֶשֶׁקְב םֵעי ִשוֹא אלְֹו םֶהיֵהלֱֹא 'הַב םיִתְע ַׁשוֹהְו םֵח ַרֲא הָּדוּהי תיֵב תֶאְו )ז( The chiastic chain is a long and more complicated pairing of many words. This
ְ

ֵ
ֵ
:יננ ה רֵבַדְמַה אוּה ינֲא י כ אוּהַה םוֹיַּב ןֵכָּל י מְשׁ י מַע עַדי ןֵכָּל )ו(

אנ קרפ הי עשי ם Chapter 4 – the collective experience in the Third person plural vss 1-16; 17-22: First
The chiastic chain is a long and more complicated pairing of many words. This
tradition attributing the authorship of the book to Jeremiah. םֵח ַרֲא הָּדוּהְי תיֵב תֶאְו )ז(םיִתְעַׁשוֹהְו אלְֹו םֶהיֵהלֱֹא 'הַבםֵעיִשוֹא י סוּסְב הָּמָּחְל מְבוּ ב ֶרֶחְבוּ תֶשֶׁקְב
ָּ

prophesy of comfort (Isa. 51:12-52:11) echoing the laments, provides a terminus ante :ךְיָּהלֱֹא ךְַלָּמ ןוֹיּ צְל רֵמא הָּעוּשׁי ַעי מְשַׁמ בוֹט רֵשַבְמ םוֹלָּשׁ ַעי מְשַׁמ רֵשַבְמ יֵלְג ַר םי רָּהֶה לַע וּואנ הַמ )ז( םי שׁ ָּרָּפְבוּ literary device complements the division of these chapters into almost equal halves,
ְ
ֹ
ֹ

ְ
:ךְיָּהלֱֹא ךְַלָּמ ןוֹיּ צְל רֵמא הָּעוּשׁי ַעי מְשַׁמ בוֹט רֵשַבְמ םוֹלָּשׁ
ָּ
ַעי מְשַׁמ רֵשַבְמ יֵלְג ַר םי רָּהֶה לַע וּואנ הַמ )ז(
ןֵתני רי צָּח םָּדאָ ןֶב מוּ תוּמי שׁוֹנֱאֵמ י א ְרי תַו ְתַא י מ םֶכְמֶחנְמ אוּה י כנאָ י כנאָ )בי( םי שׁ ָּרָּפְבוּ person plural.
ָּ :

literary device complements the division of these chapters into almost equal halves,
ָּ
ַ
ֹ
ֹ
23
quem date for Lamentations: :ןוֹיּ צ 'ה בוּשְׁב וּאר י ן יַעְב ן יַע י כ וּנֵנ ֵ ַרְי וָּדְחַי לוֹק וּאְשָּׂנ ךְ יַפֹ צ לוֹק )ח( expressed sometimes in different voices, as we noted above. A further guidepost to
ַ
ֹ

:ןוֹיּ צ 'ה בוּשְׁב וּא ְרי ןיַעְב ןיַע י כ וּננ ַרי וָּדְחי לוֹק וּאְשׂנ ךְיַפצ לוֹק )ח(
ָּ
ְ
ְ
ֹ

ֹ
ֵ
תי חְשַׁהְל ןנוֹכ רֶשֲׁאַכ קי צֵמַה תַמֲח ינְפ מ םוֹיַּה לָּכ די מָּת דֵחַפְתַו ץ ֶראָ דֵסיְו םיַמָּשׁ הֶטוֹנ ךֶָשׂע 'ה חַכְשׁ תַו )גי( :םָּלָּשׁוּרי לאַ ָּגּ ָּלָּשׁוּרְי לאַ וֹמַע 'ה םַחנ י כ םָּלָּשׁוּרי תוֹב ְרָּח וָּדְחי וּננ ַר וּחְצ פ )ט( The Book of Lamentations expresses the deep sorrow on both the personal and the Chapter 5 – breakdown of the alphabetic structure. First person plural – a prayer and
ֵ
expressed sometimes in different voices, as we noted above. A further guidepost to

אנ קרפ
הי
עשי

ְ
ְ
ְ
ַ
the reader left by the author signaling this pattern, is the doubling of the key word in
:ם
ָּגּ וֹמַע 'ה םַח נ י כ ם ָּלָּשׁוּרְי תוֹב ְרָּח וָּדְחַי וּנְנ ַר וּחְצ פ )ט(
Identifying the inner structure of Lamentations 1 and 2
:
קי צֵמַה תַמֲח היַּאְו
the reader left by the author signaling this pattern, is the doubling of the key word in
ֵ
ַ

: ןֵתני רי צָּח םָּדאָ ןֶב מוּ תוּמי שׁוֹנֱאֵמ י א ְרי תַו ְתַא י מ םֶכְמֶחנְמ אוּה י כנאָ י כנאָ )בי( :וּניֵהלֱֹא תַעוּשׁ ְְי תֵא ץ ֶראָ יֵסְפאַ לָּכ וּא ָּרְו ם יוֹגַּה לָּכ יֵניֵעְל וֹשְׁדָּק ַעוֹרְז תֶא 'ה ףַשָּׂח )י( national level of the destruction of the First Temple, and the ensuing massive appeal to God to remember Israel’s suffering.
ָּ
ָּ
ֹ
ֹ

ֵ
the first verse of both chapters. In order that the chapter holds the readers’ interest, the
:וּניֵהלֱֹא תַעוּשׁי תֵא ץ ֶראָ יֵסְפאַ לָּכ וּא ָּרְו םיוֹגַּה לָּכ יניֵעְל וֹשְׁדָּק ַעוֹרז תֶא 'ה ףַשָּׂח )י(
ְ
Identifying the inner structure of Lamentations 1 and 2

deportation as well as the atrocities that the Judeans suffered. The poet gives voice to
28
ֵ
וֹמְחַל רַסְח ְתַו ץ ֶראָ דֵסֹ יְו ם ימשׁ הֶטוֹנ ךֶָשֹׂ ע 'ה
תי חְשַׁהְל ןנוֹכ רֶשֲׁאַכ קי צֵמַה תַמֲח ינְפ מ םוֹיַּה לָּכ די : מָּת דֵחַפ ֶי אלְֹו תַחַשַל תוּמי אלְֹו ַחֵתָּפ הְל הֶעצ רַה מ )די( :'ה יֵלְכ יאשֹׂ ֹ ֵ ְ נ וּרָּב ה הָּּכוֹת מ וּאְצ וּעָּגּ ת לאַ אֵמָּט םָּש מ וּאְצ וּרוּס וּרוּס )אי( The French biblical scholar Albert Condamin was probably the first to discern a the first verse of both chapters. In order that the chapter holds the readers’ interest, the
ֵ
ֹחַכְשׁ תַו )גי(
ָּ ַ ָּ
author uses various types of parallelisms which we will illustrate below.

:'ה יֵלְכ יֵאְשׂנ וּרָּב ה הָּּכוֹת מ וּאְצ וּעָּגּ ת לאַ אֵמָּט םָּש מ וּאְצ וּרוּס וּרוּס )אי(
In his choice of introducing different voices, male and female, individual and
the national calamity summed up as ‘ein la menaḥem’. “Who will restore the dead to
28
ֶ
certain repetitive pattern in the acrostics of Lamentations chs. 1 and 2, where a word
ָּ
ֹ
: וֹמְשׁ תוֹאָּבְצ 'ה ויָּלַגּ וּמֱהיַּו םיַּה עַגר ךָיֶהלֱֹא 'ה י כנאְָו )וט( ַאְו: קי צֵמַה ת ֹ ַמֲח הֵיּ The French biblical scholar Albert Condamin was probably the first to discern a author uses various types of parallelisms which we will illustrate below.

18
the human community, articulate the inexpressible, turn death into beauty?
collective witnesses, he creates an oral bond with his audience. It seems that the Book
or a phrase is repeated in the first and last verse, the second and 21 verse and so on,
ָּ
st
ֶי אלְֹו תַחַשַל תוּמי אלְֹו ַחֵתָּפ הְל הֶעצ רַה מ )די(
וֹמְחַל רַסְח
ֹ
:
ָּ
ֹ
th
ְ

ֹ
ֹ
: הָּתָּא י מַע ןוֹיּ צְל רמאֵלְו ץ ֶראָ דסי לְו םיַמָּשׁ ַעטנ ל ךָי תי ס כ י די לֵצְבוּ ךָי פְב י ַרָּבְד םי שָּׂאָּו )זט( Some modern commentators see the different order of the alphabet in chs. 1 and 2 as certain repetitive pattern in the acrostics of Lamentations chs. 1 and 2, where a word This type of structure has been known since the beginning of the 20 century. Even
Some modern commentators see the different order of the alphabet in chs. 1 and 2 as

of Lamentations is a striking example of the composition, transmission and
:
וֹמְשׁ תוֹאָּבְצ 'ה ויָּלַגּ וּמֱהיַּו םיַּה עַגר ךָיֶהלֱֹא 'ה י כנאְָו )וט(
ֹ
ֹ
\ \
ֶ
ָּ
or a phrase is repeated in the first and last verse, the second and 21 verse and so on,
st

ְ
th
This type of structure has been known since the beginning of the 20 century. Even
תי תָּשׁ הָּלֵע ְרַתַה סוֹכ תַעַבֻק תֶא וֹתָּמֲח סוֹכ תֶא 'ה דיּ מ תי תָּשׁ רֶשֲׁא םַלָּשׁוּרי י מוּק י ר ְרוֹעְת ה י ר ְרוֹעְת ה )זי( evidence of two authors. We will attempt to show below that these two chapters have e.g., )בכ ,א ,א( תובר //יתבר or םחנמ הל ןיא )אכ ,ב ,א( ול םחנמ ןיא . He called it ‘concentric so, it has been ignored by most commentators. More recently, it has been outright
ַ
evidence of two authors. We will attempt to show below that these two chapters have
publication of an ancient literary text – giving it simultaneously a written and an oral
The author of the Book of Lamentations takes up the challenge to be that human
: הָּתָּא י מַע ןוֹיּ צְל רמאֵלְו ץ ֶראָ דסי לְו םיַמָּשׁ ַעטנ ל ךָי תי ס כ י די לֵצְבוּ ךָי פְב י ַרָּבְד םי שָּׂאָּו )זט( more in common than meets the eye or ear. A close reading of the five chapters leads structure’. This idea was developed to the extreme by Johan Renkema. It was Meir rejected. Adele Berlin has called it “a random event or worse - a delusion of the
29
ְ
ָּ

ֹ
ֹ
ֹ
34
\ \
: תי צָּמ more in common than meets the eye or ear. A close reading of the five chapters leads e.g., )בכ ,א ,א( תובר //יתבר or םחנמ הל ןיא )אכ ,ב ,א( ול םחנמ ןיא . He called it ‘concentric so, it has been ignored by most commentators. More recently, it has been outright
19
comforter of Israel – םחנמה - who will bring order out of chaos. He finds that order in
form.

ַ
30
ְ
תי תָּשׁ הָּלֵע ְרַתַה סוֹכ תַעַבֻק תֶא וֹתָּמֲח סוֹכ תֶא 'ה דיּ מ תי תָּשׁ רֶשֲׁא ם ַלָּשׁוּרי י מוּק י ר ְרוֹעְת ה י ר ְרוֹעְת ה )זי( me to agree with the idea that there is only one author of the book 24 Weiss who called this pattern AT-BASH but other than giving a few examples from commentator”. In his 35
34 authoritative commentary, Jacob Klein follows Berlin
24 who sought to
29

: הָּלֵד גּ םינָּב לָּכ מ הָּּדיְב קיזֲחַמ ןיֵאְו הָּדָּלי םינָּב לָּכ מ הָּּל לֵהנְמ ןיֵא )חי( me to agree with the idea that there is only one author of the book who sought to structure’. This idea was developed to the extreme by Johan Renkema. It was Meir rejected. Adele Berlin has called it “a random event or worse - a delusion of the

ַ
ָּ

ָּ
the alphabet. I would say that the book is a product of ‘alphabetic thinking’. Four of
: תי צָּמ express his emotions by using different voices and also different patterns of the the text, he went on to treat other literary matters. Yehiel Zvi Moscovitz in his claiming that “most of the evidence for this theory is forced and based on the
30
35
This assumption encouraged me to look more closely at the alphabetic acrostics in
ָּ
ֹ

ָּ

ֹ
ֹ
ַ
: ךְֵמֲחנֲא י מ ב ֶרֶחַהְו בָּע ָּרָּהְו רֶבֶשַהְו דשַה ךְָּל דוּני י מ ךְיַתא ְרק הנֵה םיַתְשׁ )טי( express his emotions by using different voices and also different patterns of the Weiss who called this pattern AT-BASH but other than giving a few examples from commentator”. In his authoritative commentary, Jacob Klein follows Berlin
the five chapters are alphabetic acrostics and the fifth chapter, though not an acrostic,

ָּ
ָּ

ַ
: הָּלֵד גּ םינָּב לָּכ מ הָּּדיְב קיזֲחַמ ןיֵאְו הָּדָּלי םינָּב לָּכ מ הָּּל לֵהנְמ ןיֵא )חי( acrostic: `ain - peh order (ch1) 25 , peh-`ain order (chs 2-4), a triple acrostic in the Hebrew commentary on Lamentations in the Da’at Miqra series does not cite Weiss imagination of the commentator”. Taking this critique in mind, we now turn to
is composed of twenty-two verses, influenced by the 22-letter alphabet - creating
:
ךְיָּהלֱֹא ת ַרֲעַגּ 'ה תַמֲח םי אֵלְמַה רָּמְכ מ אוֹתְכ תוֹצוּח לָּכ שׁארְב וּבְכָּשׁ וּפְלֻע ךְינָּב )כ( acrostic: `ain - peh order (ch1) 25 , peh-`ain order (chs 2-4), a triple acrostic in the the text, he went on to treat other literary matters. Yehiel Zvi Moscovitz in his Lamentations, especially those in the first two chapters. There are two approaches in
ֹ

ַ
claiming that “most of the evidence for this theory is forced and based on the
ֹ
ָּ
ַ
: ךְֵמֲחנֲא י מ ב ֶרֶחַהְו בָּע ָּרָּהְו רֶבֶשַהְו דשַה ךְָּל דוּני י מ ךְיַתא ְרק הנֵה םיַתְשׁ )טי( middle third chapter, and no alphabetic order in ch. 5. The writer created a poem by but does recognize the pattern and tries his hand at listing the corresponding Lamentations 1-2 and try to understand their structure.
ֹ
ָּ
ֹ

Hebrew commentary on Lamentations in the Da’at Miqra series does not cite Weiss

ֹ
:ןייּ מ אלְֹו ת ַרֻכְשׁוּ היּנֲע תאז אנ י עְמ שׁ ןֵכָּל )אכ(
ָּ
imagination of the commentator”. Taking this critique in mind, we now turn to

ָּ

ָּ
ךְיָּהלֱֹא ת ַרֲעַגּ 'ה תַמֲח םי אֵלְמַה רָּמְכ מ אוֹתְכ תוֹצוּח לָּכ שׁארְב וּבְכָּשׁ וּפְלֻע ךְינָּב )כ( middle third chapter, and no alphabetic order in ch. 5. The writer created a poem by visual symmetry. By composing the alphabetic acrostics, one gains control over one’s modern commentaries to this book: one is structuralist, relying heavily on the
ֹ
:

ַ
31
components. For a thorough study of claims of biblical chiastics in light of these two
weaving together orality and textuality.

20
acrostics in order to find an inner connection between the verses; the second
thoughts and emotions and begins to find solace.

ָּ
:ןייּ מ אלְֹו ת ַרֻכְשׁוּ היּנֲע תאז אנ י עְמ שׁ ןֵכָּל )אכ( weaving together orality and textuality. but does recognize the pattern and tries his hand at listing the corresponding Lamentations 1-2 and try to understand their structure.
ָּ

ֹ
ָּ
There is the possibility that the author had an additional point to make in chapter 5,
There is the possibility that the author had an additional point to make in chapter 5, 31 approach is that of those who emphasize the message and esthetic aspects of the
Prophesies of Jeremiah Concerning the Gentiles”, Biblical and Canaanite Literatures vol. 2 perhaps he wished to sign his name with the initial words in the first verse of the components. For a thorough study of claims of biblical chiastics in light of these two
21
perhaps he wished to sign his name with the initial words in the first verse of the genre, seeing the acrostics as a literary device. Whatever the case, both the oral and
(Jerusalem, 1979), pp. 67-107 (Hebrew); Jacob Klein, Lamentations A Commentary (Tel Aviv,
ָּ
ֹ
Prophesies of Jeremiah Concerning the Gentiles”, Biblical and Canaanite Literatures vol. 2 chapter: וּנֵתָּפ ְרֶח - תֶא הֵא ְרוּ )הָּטי בַה( טיבה וּנָּל היָּה - הֶמ 'ה רכְז giving us his name Zechariah. He
Jerusalem, 2017) (Hebrew).
15
ָּ
ֹ
22 (Jerusalem, 1979), pp. 67-107 (Hebrew); Jacob Klein, Lamentations A Commentary (Tel Aviv, chapter: וּנֵתָּפ ְרֶח - תֶא הֵא ְרוּ )הָּטי בַה( טיבה וּנָּל היָּה - הֶמ 'ה רכְז giving us his name Zechariah. He See also Avigdor Hurowitz, “Proverbs 21:22-27 Another Unnoticed Alphabetic Acrostic”, JSOT 92 written modes were employed by the author(s) to produce this moving composition.
Klein, Lamentations, p. 8.
26
See already Azriel
Jerusalem, 2017) (Hebrew). should not be confused with the prophet Zechariah ben Berechiah ben `Iddo who (2001), pp. 121-125. Rosenfield, 96 'מע )1992( 110 יניס "ה קרפ הכיאב ןוכיטסורקא", cited by Phillipe
23
Joshua Berman, “Criteria for Establishing Chiastic Structure: Lamentations 1 and 2 as Test Cases”,
32
16
See Jacob Klein, Lamentations – Introduction and Commentary (Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, 2017)
Klein, Lamentations, p. 8.
22 Without citing Eicah, it was Cassuto who made the case for intertextuality in Second Isaiah, see “On should not be confused with the prophet Zechariah ben Berechiah ben `Iddo who Guillaume, "Lamentations 5: the Seventh Acrostic," Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 9 (2009), p 4.
the Formal and Stylistic Relationship between the Second Part of the Book of Isaiah and Other However, his further reading of the word ‘איבנה’ is forced. 19 Maarav 21/1-2 (2017), pp. 57-69.
Aaron Demsky, "The Interface of Oral and Written Traditions in Ancient Israel: The Case of the
(Hebrew); Joshua Berman, Lamentations (NCBC; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2023),
23
Without citing Eicah, it was Cassuto who made the case for intertextuality in Second Isaiah, see “On
Prophets”, ibid., pp. 33-66 (Hebrew); Yehezkel Kaufmann, Toldot Haemunah Ha Yisraelit 8 Abecedaries", in C. Rico and C. Attucci (eds.), Origins of the Alphabet. Proceedings of the First Polis
27
especially pp. 1-7 for an overview of the genre of lamentations.
ֹ
Gen 9:6 - ךֵפָּשי וֹמָּד םָּדאָָּב םָּדאָָּה םַד ךְֵפשׁ on this literary phenomenon see Wilfred G.E Watson, “Chiastic

;229 'מע )1993( םישוריפו םינויע הכימ רפס ,ןוגרו לאומש Moshe Greenberg, Ezekiel 1-20 (Garden City,
33
the Formal and Stylistic Relationship between the Second Part of the Book of Isaiah and Other
Institute Interdisciplinary Conference (2015, Oxford: Oxford Scholars Press, pp.17-47.
Meir Bar-Ilan, Jewish Women, ch. 3, where he argues that chs. 1 and 2 were composed by a woman.
(Jerusalem, 1955), pp. 107-108 (Hebrew); Shalom Paul, Isaiah -Chs. 40-48 (Jerusalem, 2008), pp. 44- 8
1983), p. 69.
Prophets”, ibid., pp. 33-66 (Hebrew); Yehezkel Kaufmann, Toldot Haemunah Ha Yisraelit 17 26 See already Azriel Rosenfield, 96 'מע )1992( 110 יניס "ה קרפ הכיאב ןוכיטסורקא", cited by Phillipe
Patterns in Biblical Hebrew Poetry”, in John W. Welch (ed) Chiasmus in antiquity, Provo, Utah (1981),
Johan Renkema, “The Literary Structure of Lamentations (I) and (II)”, in W. van der Meer and J.C.
For ancient Mesopotamia, compare Jerrold S. Cooper, “Genre, Gender and the Sumerian
45; Isaiah -Chs. 49-66, pp. 340-341(Hebrew); Klein, Lamentations, pp. 50-51 (Hebrew), see also Lena- 24 See Kaufmann, Toldot 7 (1955), pp. 584f. Guillaume, "Lamentations 5: the Seventh Acrostic," Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 9 (2009), p 4. 20 32 Joshua Berman, “Criteria for Establishing Chiastic Structure: Lamentations 1 and 2 as Test Cases”,
pp 118-169.
28
Albert Condamin, “Symmetrical Repetitions in Lamentation Chapters 1-2”, Journal of Theological
(Jerusalem, 1955), pp. 107-108 (Hebrew); Shalom Paul, Isaiah -Chs. 40-48 (Jerusalem, 2008), pp. 44-

Maarav 21/1-2 (2017), pp. 57-69.
However, his further reading of the word ‘איבנה’ is forced.
Studies 7 (1905), pp. 137-140.
45; Isaiah -Chs. 49-66, pp. 340-341(Hebrew); Klein, Lamentations, pp. 50-51 (Hebrew), see also Lena-
Sofia Tiemeyer, 'Lamentations in Isaiah 40-55: Reading Lamentations as Sacred Scripture'. in H 25 However, cf. the version in Qumran 4QLam where the peh precedes the ’ain. See Frank M. Cross, Lamentations,” JCS 58 (2006), pp 39-57. de Moor (eds.) The Structural Analysis of Biblical and Canaanite Poetry (Shefield, 1988), pp. 294-396.
Adele Berlin, Lamentations –A Commentary (Louisville, London, 2002), p. 6. See also Delbert R.
34
See Kaufmann, Toldot 7 (1955), pp. 584f.
24
33 Hillers, Lamentations Anchor Bible (Garden City, 1992), p. 29: “unconvincing and strained”.
29
27 Renkema, op.cit., pp. 296-297; 307-309.
Gen 9:6 - ךֵפָּשי וֹמָּד םָּדאָָּב םָּדאָָּה םַד ךְֵפשׁ on this literary phenomenon see Wilfred G.E Watson, “Chiastic
ֹ

Thomas & R Parry (eds), Great is Thy Faithfulness? Toward Reading Lamentations as Christian
Sofia Tiemeyer, 'Lamentations in Isaiah 40-55: Reading Lamentations as Sacred Scripture'. in H “Studies in the Structure of Hebrew Verse: The Prosody of Lamentations 1:1-22”, Carol L. Myers and 18 Francis Landy, in Robert Alter and Frank Kermode (eds), The Literary Guide to the Bible (London, 21 Meir Weiss “On Megillat ‘Eichah”, Ture Yeshurun 1/3 (Jerusalem, 1966), pp 11-16 (Hebrew); Adele
;229 'מע )1993( םישוריפו םינויע הכימ רפס ,ןוגרו לאומש Moshe Greenberg, Ezekiel 1-20 (Garden City,
However, cf. the version in Qumran 4QLam where the peh precedes the ’ain. See Frank M. Cross,
25
Meir Weiss, “`Al megilat Eichah”, Turei Yeshurun 1 (1976), pp. 11-16 (Hebrew).
Jacob Klein, Lamentations – Introduction and Commentary (Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, 2017), p. 27
35
30
Thomas & R Parry (eds), Great is Thy Faithfulness? Toward Reading Lamentations as Christian Michael O’Connor, (eds.) The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth: Essays in Honor of David Noel 1997), pp. 329-334. Berlin, Lamentations –A Commentary (Louisville, London, 2002), pp. 4-6; Moshe David Cassuto, “The
Scripture.
1983), p. 69.
Patterns in Biblical Hebrew Poetry”, in John W. Welch (ed) Chiasmus in antiquity, Provo, Utah (1981),
Scripture. “Studies in the Structure of Hebrew Verse: The Prosody of Lamentations 1:1-22”, Carol L. Myers and 31 Yehiel Z. Moscovitz, Eichah, Hamesh Megilot (Jerusalem, 1990), pp. 7-8 (Hebrew). (Hebrew).
Freedman (Winona Lake, 1983), pp. 129-155.

Albert Condamin, “Symmetrical Repetitions in Lamentation Chapters 1-2”, Journal of Theological
28
pp 118-169.
Michael O’Connor, (eds.) The Word of the Lord Shall Go Forth: Essays in Honor of David Noel

Freedman (Winona Lake, 1983), pp. 129-155. Studies 7 (1905), pp. 137-140. 34 Adele Berlin, Lamentations –A Commentary (Louisville, London, 2002), p. 6. See also Delbert R.

43
41 29 Renkema, op.cit., pp. 296-297; 307-309. 38 Hillers, Lamentations Anchor Bible (Garden City, 1992), p. 29: “unconvincing and strained”.

30 Meir Weiss, “`Al megilat Eichah”, Turei Yeshurun 1 (1976), pp. 11-16 (Hebrew). 35 Jacob Klein, Lamentations – Introduction and Commentary (Tel Aviv, Jerusalem, 2017), p. 27
31
(Hebrew).
Yehiel Z. Moscovitz, Eichah, Hamesh Megilot (Jerusalem, 1990), pp. 7-8 (Hebrew).