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least contained. Drug discovery was linear, measurable, and
built on a reproducible foundation.
But for all its success, this model had its limits. Small
molecules worked best on simple targets—receptors,
enzymes, ion channels. They struggled with diseases driven
by complex immune signaling, genetic mutations, or
intracellular protein interactions. And as the
pharmaceutical industry tried to tackle more intricate
conditions—autoimmune diseases, neurodegeneration,
cancer—it became clear that the old tools weren’t enough.
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