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100 Hand-Rearing Birds

administered. It should not be too hot or crop burns will result. Microwave heating is not recom-
mended due to uneven heating of the food particles. Feeding a cold diet may put a fragile patient
into shock and result in death.

Housing

Waterfowl vary greatly in size. As another general rule, chicks of the same size and age can be put
together even with species variation. Mixed housing has advantages and disadvantages that must
be weighed up. A singleton of any species will likely not survive. If it does, the chick may imprint
on the caregiver and not be releasable to the wild. Older chicks may suffocate, injure, or not allow
newly hatched young to feed. Use care if this is the only option for housing. Older chicks that have
begun to eat on their own may encourage and teach younger ones how to eat and drink. Observe
the birds carefully for any aggression and separate immediately if it occurs, especially if mixing age
groups. Networking with other waterfowl rehabilitators is suggested and very helpful with housing
multiple species or varied ages. When smooth surfaced dishes are used or slick surfaced floors, be
sure to cover the bottom with pea gravel or other material to assure stable footing and prevent
splayed legs from developing.

Brooder

Brooder boxes can be made from a variety of materials. Dry brooders have no option for swim-
ming; wet brooders do. Each has benefits and drawbacks. Experience, including what species
is most common in the region and the numbers of patients expected, will be the best method
of selecting which box and brooder type will work for your facility. Many waterfowl breeders
use a walk‐in wooden box about 6 ft. (1.8 m) high to accommodate highly active cavity‐nesting
duck species as well as geese and swans. Other breeders find that a rectangular plastic storage
container makes a very good brooder for most young waterfowl. A large cardboard box works
well as a dry brooder. The size of the container will vary according to the species and numbers
of chicks.
A box 42 × 24 × 36 in. (1 × 0.6 × 0.9 m) will accommodate up to eight newly hatched ducklings.
Some species of ducklings, “jumpers,” or larger waterfowl require taller containers. Cardboard can
be used to increase the height of the brooder box. Do not use wire, because some species of
cavity‐nesting ducks hatch with toenails and will use the wire as a stairway to escape. Larger
waterfowl may injure their beaks on wire. Pea gravel, coarse sand, and Astroturf® pieces all make
a good substrate for the bottom of the brooder. Wood shavings, straw, and newspaper may be
ingested by chicks and should not be used as substrate. Wet carpet and towels can harbor fungus
and must be replaced when they are wet or soiled. Fine sand may irritate the eyes of hatchlings.
Hard substrate, such as cement, will cause foot problems and should not be used. For the first few
days of rehabilitation, place a white muslin cloth or towel on top of the substrate to allow easy
assessment of the chicks’ droppings, both for color and consistency, indicating problems from not
eating or digestion issues (Figure 5.4) (Rupley 1997).
A heat lamp firmly fixed to one corner of the brooder box should keep the temperature under the
lamp between 95 and 99 °F (35.0–37.2 °C). In the case of rearing only a few chicks, the lamp can be
as simple as a reflector‐style clip‐on lamp with a 40–60‐W heat producing bulb. Raising or lowering
the lamp can easily adjust the heat. Commercial brooders and heat lamps are available at farm
supply stores if caring for larger numbers of hatchlings.